OD Final Paper Employee Engagement Interventi.docx

OD Final Paper: Employee Engagement Intervention
Names of People in group here
OLPD 3640-002
Fall 2012
University of Minnesota
EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT INTERVENTION2
Employee engagement is a relatively new but extremely popular
concept in organizational management and development and is
considered an organization level change. Such strong interest is
driven by claims that organizations looking to leverage
employee engagement could ultimately observe fruitful,
“bottom-line” results (Macey & Schneider, 2008, p. 3).
Note the inclusion of type of change in Yellow
This introduction does not need to be more than one paragraph.
Note that each section only contains 1-2 sentences which is not
considered complete, but you can see the kind of content that
you might introduce into each section.
Purpose of Intervention
The purpose of employee engagement is to predict employee
outcomes, success, and financial performance of organizations
(Saks, 2006. Discuss how the intervention does this…

Assumptions of Intervention
A number of assumptions could be observed with regard to
employee engagement. First, it is often expected that any
engagement initiatives should be led, encouraged, and supported
by the top management of the organization…
Expected Outcome of intervention
The importance of employee engagement has been widely
recognized by both practitioners and researchers in organization
development and management. For instance, Hewitt Associates
stated they have established a compelling evidence to suggest
that there is a strong relationship between engagement and
profitability through higher productivity, increasing sales,
customer satisfaction, and employee retention (as cited in
Macey & Schneider, 2008)…
Organization Usage
North Shore LIJ Health System (States, 2008, as cited in Shuck,
Rocco, & Albornoz, 2010) invested $10 million in training and
development initiatives and encouraged their employees to
pursue further education as part of their goal of raising the
levels of engagement within the organization…
Primary theorists
No discussion of employee engagement would be complete
without the inclusion of the work of William A. Kahn. Kahn’s
(1990) qualitative study on engagement and disengagement is
one of the most cited works in the current literature…
May, Gilson, and Harter (2004) also provided an excellent
overview of the significance of engagement, stating that the
opposite construct – disengagement – is central to employees’
lack of commitment and motivation and that meaningless work
is related to apathy and detachment from one’s works. In these
situations, individuals can be alienated from their self and
restoring the meaningfulness of their work plays a pivotal role
in motivating these employees and re-attaching them to their
work…
Limitations of Employee Engagement as an Intervention
Current research on engagement points to a number of

limitations. It seems to suggest that the literature on the topic
comes by and large from practitioners’ point of view (for
example, human resource consulting firms), and lacks rigorous
– and coherent – examination of the antecedents and
consequences as well as other components of the concept
(Macey & Schneider, 2008; Saks, 2006)…
Summary
Employee engagement has become as a topic of immense
interest in the organizational literature over the past recent
years…
References
NOTE: Good examples, but more than you need for the final OD
paper.
Albrecht, S. L. (2010). Handbook of employee engagement:
Perspectives, issues, research, and practice. MA: Edward Elgar
Publishing Yellow
Cumming, T. G. & Worley, C. G. (2009). Organization
development and change (9th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western.
Fairlie, P. (2011). Meaningful work, employee engagement, and
other key employee outcomes: Implications for human resource
development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(4),
508-525. doi: 10.1177/1523422311431679
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal
engagement and disengagement at work. The Academy of
Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724.
Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of
employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, 1(1), 3-30. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.0002.x
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The
psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and
availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1),
11-37. doi: 10.1348/096317904322915892
Robertson, I. T., & Cooper, C. L. (2010). Full engagement: the

integration of employee engagement and psychological well-
being. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(4),
324-336. doi: 10.1108/01437731011043348
Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee
engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 600-619.
doi: 10.1108/02683940610690169
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job
resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement:
A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
25(3), 293-315. doi: 10.1002/job.248
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gnzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker,
A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A
confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness
Studies, 3, 71-92.
Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & Van Rhenen, W. (2008).
Workaholism, burnout, and work engagement: Three of a kind
or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied
Psychology, 57(2), 173-203. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-
0597.2007.00285.x
Shuck, B., & Reio, T. G. (2011). The employee engagement
landscape and HRD: How do we link theory and scholarship to
current practice? Advances in Developing Human Resources,
13(4), 419-428. doi: 10.1177/1523422311431153
Shuck, B., Rocco, T. S., & Albornoz, C. A. (2010). Exploring
employee engagement from the employee perspective:
Implications for HRD. Journal of European Industrial Training,
35(4), 300-325.
Simpson, M. R. (2009). Engagement at work: A review of the
literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46(7), 1012-
1024.

OLPD 3640 SRING 2016 FINAL ASSIGNMENT:
OD INTERVENTION SUMMARY AND POWERPOINT: (total
20% of final grade)
DUE: APRIL 27, 2016 AT 23:55
Each group will prepare a five page (Includes cover + reference
page) summary and accompanying PowerPoint presentation to
describe ONE OD intervention at either the organizational,
group, or individual level. The intervention will be assigned to
each group of 4-5 people.
Goal: Research, summarize, and report on an OD intervention.
The intervention summary must not include training or
assessment/diagnostic activities such as interviews or a climate
survey. While some have criticized PowerPoint presentations
the fact remains that this is a very common and (with effort)
effective method for presenting ideas in an organizational
context. (See the link below for more on this issue:
http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/in_defense_of_powerp.html). In
addition, the skill of preparing a concise written summary needs
to be mastered for OD work.
Process: An OD intervention will be selected for your group
(See Below). Each intervention will be summarized by only one
Group. There are two deliverables:
1. A five page paper summarizing the purpose and type of
change, assumptions, expected outcomes, organization usage
(who uses it), primary theorists, and possible limitations
2. A PowerPoint presentation that will communicate the key
information above to your classmates. No presentation will be

made.
Mechanics: The assignment must conform to the following
instructions. Students will work in assigned groups to complete
this assignment.
OD Intervention Paper
The entire paper will be delivered in MS Word with 1.5 spacing
and one-inch margins. A strict four page limit will be enforced.
Page 1.Cover page: Title of the intervention, group member
names, title of course and professor name. Do not list your
student identification numbers.
Pages 2-4:OD intervention summary: Your three-page summary
should describe the key features of your intervention. At a
minimum, your paper should identify the purpose and type of
change, assumptions, expected outcomes, organization usage
(who uses it), primary theorists, and possible limitations. The
summary should provide an academically sound review of the
intervention that would be appropriate to give to a well-
informed client interested in learning about your chosen
intervention. However, it should not be written with a specific
client or setting in mind. Research primarily, recent scholarly
literature to provide examples of the intervention(s) in practice,
the underlying theories, and strategies for implementation. You
should have at least eight references that meet the following
minimums:
· Four or more from scholarly (research) journals (If you have
questions about whether a reference is popular or scholarly?
See: http://wilson.lib.umn.edu/reference/popular.html)
· At least one reference to your textbook for this class
· No more than three Internet sources
· Cite all sources using the APA (6th edition) format
Page 5.References to literature cited in a references section
(start on a new page).
PowerPoint Presentation

Using your written summary as a guide, create a PowerPoint
presentation to summarize and highlight the major points of
your chosen OD intervention. The presentation should provide
a brief overview of the topic, key issues, and reference sources
for additional information.
· Length: Presentation must NOT exceed eight (8) slides
(including title and reference slide).
· Grading: The project will be graded based on two primary
criteria:
· Content
· Thoroughness of research.
· Appropriate level of summary (not too brief or too detailed).
· Correct and relevant information presented.
· Significant aspects of intervention covered.
· Sources for additional information provided.
· Appearance
· Overall quality of writing in written summary.
· Overall graphic appeal of PowerPoint presentation.
· Presentation of information in both summary and PowerPoint
is professional, error free, and shows a degree of creativity.
· Instruction for preparing and submitting assignment followed.
Instructions for Submitting
Submit both your paper and your PowerPoint files to the final
project submission area by April, 27th.
Remember APA Format and:
1. If you take material that is not yours, from any source

(including websites), and copy it into anything you submit, you
are obligated to provide a citation to the original source and list
it to the references at the end of the paper.
2. Material that is copied verbatim from other texts (including
websites), must be placed in quotation marks or, in the case of
anything longer than 39 words, blocked quotes, indicating its
source, as in item # 1 above.
3. Material that is paraphrased must also be documented as in
item # 1.
Group Assignments
Group
Your Intervention
A
Appreciative Inquiry
B
Preferred Futuring
C
Six Sigma & Gemba Kaizen
D
Culture
E
Knowledge Management
F
Balanced Scorecard
G
Coaching
H
Organization Learning
I
Employee Wellness
J
Scenario Planning

K
Goal Setting
L
Succession Planning
M
Performance Appraisals
N
Reward Systems
O
Mentoring
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain •
UnitedKingdom • UnitedStates
Organization Development & Change
9e
Thomas G. Cummings
University of Southern California
Christopher G. Worley
University of Southern California
Pepperdine University
Organization Development & Change,
9th Edition

Thomas G. Cummings &
Christopher G. Worley
Vice President of Editorial, Business:
Jack W. Calhoun
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Executive Editor: Joe Sabatino
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Marketing Manager: Clint Kernen
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Manager of Technology, Editorial: John Barans
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Production Service: Integra Software Services,
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Cover and Internal Designer: Mike Stratton,
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Cover Image: Chad Baker, Getty Images
© 2009, 2005 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning

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Dedication
To Chailin and Debbie, the loves of our lives
iv
brief contents
Preface x v
CHAPTER 1
General Introduction to Organization

Development 1
PART 1
Over view of Organization Development 22
CHAPTER 2
The Nature of Planned Change 23
CHAPTER 3
The Organization Development
Practitioner 46
PART 2
The Process of Organization Development 74
CHAPTER 4
Entering and Contracting 75
CHAPTER 5
Diagnosing Organizations 87
CHAPTER 6
Diagnosing Groups and Jobs 107
CHAPTER 7
Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic
Information 121
CHAPTER 8
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information 139
CHAPTER 9
Designing Interventions 151
CHAPTER 10
Leading and Managing Change 163

CHAPTER 11
Evaluating and Institutionalizing
Organization Development Interventions 189
PART 3
Human Process Inter ventions 252
CHAPTER 12
Interpersonal and Group Process
Approaches 253
CHAPTER 13
Organization Process Approaches 276
PART 4
Technostruc tural Inter ventions 314
CHAPTER 14
Restructuring Organizations 315
CHAPTER 15
Employee Involvement 350
CHAPTER 16
Work Design 376
PART 5
Human Resource Management
Inter ventions 419
CHAPTER 17
Performance Management 420
CHAPTER 18
Developing Talent 451

CHAPTER 19
Managing Workforce Diversity
and Wellness 473
PART 6
Strategic Change Inter ventions 504
CHAPTER 20
Transformational Change 505
CHAPTER 21
Continuous Change 535
CHAPTER 22
Transorganizational Change 561
PART 7
Special Applications of Organization
Development 613
CHAPTER 23
Organization Development in Global
Settings 614
CHAPTER 24
Organization Development in Nonindustrial
Settings: Health Care, School Systems, the
Public Sector, and Family-Owned Businesses 651
CHAPTER 25
Future Directions in Organization
Development 693
Glossary 746

Name Index 756
Subject Index 760
v
Preface x v
CHAPTER 1
General Introduction to Organization Development 1
Organization Development Defined 1
The Growth and Relevance of Organization Development 4
A Short History of Organization Development 6
Laboratory Training Background 6
Action Research and Survey Feedback Background 8
Normative Background 9
Productivity and Quality-of-Work-Life Background 11
Strategic Change Background 12
Evolution in Organization Development 12
Overview of The Book 14
Summary 17
Notes 17
PART 1
Overview of OrganizationDevelopment 22
CHAPTER 2

The Nature of Planned Change 23
Theories of Planned Change 23
Lewin’s Change Model 23
Action Research Model 24
The Positive Model 27
Comparisons of Change Models 29
General Model of Planned Change 29
Diagnosing 30
Planning and Implementing Change 30
Evaluating and Institutionalizing Change 31
Different Types of Planned Change 31
Magnitude of Change 31
Application 2-1 Planned Change at the San Diego County
Regional Airport Authority 32
Degree of Organization 35
Application 2-2 Planned Change in an Underorganized System
37
Domestic vs. International Settings 40
Critique of Planned Change 41
Conceptualization of Planned Change 41
Practice of Planned Change 42
Summary 43
Notes 44
contents

vi Contents
CHAPTER 3
The Organization Development Practitioner 46
Who is the Organization Development Practitioner? 46
Competencies of an Effective Organization Development
Practitioner 48
The Professional Organization Development Practitioner 53
Role of Organization Development Professionals 53
Application 3-1 Personal Views of the Internal and External
Consulting Positions 56
Careers of Organization Development Professionals 59
Professional Values 60
Professional Ethics 61
Ethical Guidelines 61
Ethical Dilemmas 62
Application 3-2 Kindred Todd and the Ethics of OD 65
Summary 66
Notes 67
Appendix 70
PART 2
The Process of Organization Development 74

CHAPTER 4
Entering into an OD Relationship 76
Clarifying the Organizational Issue 76
Determining the Relevant Client 76
Selecting an OD Practitioner 77
Developing a Contract 79
Mutual Expectations 79
Application 4-1 Entering Alegent Health 80
Time and Resources 81
Ground Rules 81
Interpersonal Process Issues in Entering and Contracting 81
Application 4-2 Contracting with Alegent Health 82
Summary 86
Notes 86
CHAPTER 5
Diagnosing Organizations 87
What is Diagnosis? 87
The Need for Diagnostic Models 88
Open Systems Model 89
Organizations as Open Systems 89
Diagnosing Organizational Systems 92
Organization-Level Diagnosis 94

Organization Environments and Inputs 94
Design Components 96
Outputs 99
Alignment 99
Analysis 99
Application 5-1 Steinway’s Strategic Orientation 100
Summary 105
Notes 105
viiContents
CHAPTER 6
Diagnosing Groups and Jobs 107
Group-Level Diagnosis 107
Inputs 107
Outputs 109
Fits 110
Analysis 110
Application 6-1 Top-Management Team at Ortiv Glass
Corporation 111
Individual-Level Diagnosis 113
Inputs 113
Fits 115
Analysis 115
Application 6-2 Job Design at Pepperdine University 116

Summary 119
Notes 120
CHAPTER 7
Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic Information 121
The Diagnostic Relationship 121
Methods for Collecting Data 123
Questionnaires 124
Interviews 126
Observations 127
Unobtrusive Measures 128
Sampling 129
Techniques for Analyzing Data 130
Qualitative Tools 130
Application 7-1 Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic Data at
Alegent Health 132
Quantitative Tools 133
Summary 137
Notes 138
CHAPTER 8
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information 139
Determining the Content of the Feedback 139
Characteristics of the Feedback Process 141

Survey Feedback 142
What Are the Steps? 142
Application 8-1 Training OD Practitioners in Data Feedback
143
Survey Feedback and Organizational Dependencies 145
Application 8-2 Operations Review and Survey Feedback at
Prudential Real Estate Affiliates 146
Limitations of Survey Feedback 147
Results of Survey Feedback 148
Summary 149
Notes 149
CHAPTER 9
Designing Interventions 151
What are Effective Interventions? 151
How to Design Effective Interventions 152
Contingencies Related to the Change Situation 152
Contingencies Related to the Target of Change 154
viii Contents
Overview of Interventions 156
Human Process Interventions 156
Summary 161
Notes 162

CHAPTER 10
Leading and Managing Change 163
Overview of Change Activities 163
Motivating Change 165
Creating Readiness for Change 165
Overcoming Resistance to Change 166
Application 10-1 Motivating Change in the Sexual Violence
Prevention
Unit of Minnesota’s Health Department 168
Creating a Vision 169
Describing the Core Ideology 170
Constructing the Envisioned Future 171
Developing Political Support 171
Application 10-2 Creating a Vision at Premier 172
Assessing Change Agent Power 174
Identifying Key Stakeholders 175
Influencing Stakeholders 175
Managing the Transition 176
Application 10-3 Developing Political Support for the Strategic
Planning Project in the Sexual Violence Prevention Unit 177
Activity Planning 178
Commitment Planning 179
Change-Management Structures 179
Learning Processes 179
Sustaining Momentum 180

Application 10-4 Transition Management in the HP–Compaq
Acquisition 181
Providing Resources for Change 182
Building a Support System for Change Agents 183
Developing New Competencies and Skills 183
Reinforcing New Behaviors 183
Staying the Course 184
Summary 184
Notes 185
Application 10-5 Sustaining Transformational Change at
the Veterans Health Administration 187
CHAPTER 11
Evaluating and Institutionalizing Organization
Development Interventions 189
Evaluating Organization Development Interventions 189
Implementation and Evaluation Feedback 189
Measurement 192
Research Design 197
Institutionalizing Organizational Changes 200
Institutionalization Framework 200
Application 11-1 Evaluating Change at Alegent Health 201
Organization Characteristics 203
Intervention Characteristics 204
Institutionalization Processes 205
Indicators of Institutionalization 206
Application 11-2 Institutionalizing Structural Change at
Hewlett-Packard 208

Summary 210
ixContents
Notes 210
Selected Cases 212
Kenworth Motors 212
Peppercorn Dining 217
Sunflower Incorporated 239
Initiating Change in the Manufacturing and Distribution
Division of PolyProd 241
Evaluating the Change Agent Program at Siemens Nixdorf (A)
247
PART 3
Human Process Interventions 252
CHAPTER 12
Interpersonal and Group Process Approaches 253
Process Consultation 253
Group Process 254
Basic Process Interventions 255
Results of Process Consultation 257
Application 12-1 Process Consultation at Action Company 258
Third-Party Interventions 259
An Episodic Model of Conflict 260
Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process 261
Application 12-2 Conflict Management at Balt Healthcare

Corporation 262
Team Building 263
Team-Building Activities 264
Activities Relevant to One or More Individuals 267
Activities Oriented to the Group’s Operation and Behavior 268
Activities Affecting the Group’s Relationship with the Rest
of the Organization 268
Application 12-3 Building the Executive Team at Caesars Tahoe
269
The Manager’s Role in Team Building 270
The Results of Team Building 271
Summary 273
Notes 273
CHAPTER 13
Organization Process Approaches 276
Organization Confrontation Meeting 276
Application Stages 276
Results of Confrontation Meetings 277
Application 13-1 A Work-Out Meeting at General
Electric Medical Systems Business 278
Intergroup Relations Interventions 279
Microcosm Groups 279
Resolving Intergroup Conflict 281
Large-Group Interventions 284
Application 13-2 Improving Intergroup Relationships

in Johnson & Johnson’s Drug Evaluation Department 285
Application 13-3 Using the Decision Accelerator to Generate
Innovative Strategies in Alegent’s Women’s and Children’s
Service Line 290
Results of Large-Group Interventions 294
Summary 295
Notes 295
Selected Cases 297
Lincoln Hospital: Third-Party Intervention 297
Ben & Jerry’s (A): Team Development Intervention 304
x Contents
PART 4
Technostructural Interventions 314
CHAPTER 14
Restructuring Organizations 315
Structural Design 315
The Functional Structure 316
The Divisional Structure 318
The Matrix Structure 319
The Process Structure 322
The Customer-Centric Structure 324
Application 14-1 Healthways’ Process Structure 325

The Network Structure 328
Downsizing 331
Application 14-2 Amazon.com’s Network Structure 332
Results of Downsizing 337
Application 14-3 Strategic Downsizing at Agilent Technologies
338
Reengineering 340
Application 14-4 Honeywell IAC’s Totalplant™ Reengineering
Process 344
Results from Reengineering 346
Summary 346
Notes 347
CHAPTER 15
Employee Involvement 350
Employee Involvement: What Is It? 350
A Working Definition of Employee Involvement 351
The Diffusion of Employee Involvement Practices 352
How Employee Involvement Affects Productivity 352
Employee Involvement Applications 354
Parallel Structures 354
Application 15-1 Using the AI Summit to Build
Union–Management Relations at Roadway Express 356

Total Quality Management 359
Application 15-2 Six-Sigma Success Story at GE Financial 365
High-Involvement Organizations 367
Application 15-3 Building a High-Involvement Organization
at Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. 370
Summary 373
Notes 373
CHAPTER 16
Work Design 376
The Engineering Approach 376
The Motivational Approach 377
The Core Dimensions of Jobs 378
Individual Differences 379
Barriers to Job Enrichment 382
Application 16-1 Enriching Jobs at the Hartford’s Employee
Relations Consulting Services Group 383
Results of Job Enrichment 385
The Sociotechnical Systems Approach 386
Conceptual Background 387
Self-Managed Work Teams 388
xiContents

Results of Self-Managed Teams 393
Application 16-2 Moving to Self-Managed Teams at ABB 394
Designing Work for Technical and Personal Needs 397
Technical Factors 398
Personal-Need Factors 399
Meeting Both Technical and Personal Needs 400
Summary 401
Notes 402
Selected Cases 405
City of Carlsbad, California: Restructuring the Public Works
Department (A) 405
C&S Wholesale Grocers: Self-Managed Teams 408
PART 5
Human Resource Management Interventions 419
CHAPTER 17
Performance Management 420
A Model of Performance Management 421
Goal Setting 422
Characteristics of Goal Setting 422
Establishing Challenging Goals 423
Clarifying Goal Measurement 423
Management by Objectives 424
Effects of Goal Setting and MBO 426
Performance Appraisal 426

Application 17-1 The Goal-Setting Process at Siebel Systems
427
The Performance Appraisal Process 428
Effects of Performance Appraisal 431
Reward Systems 431
Application 17-2 Adapting the Appraisal Process at Capital
One Financial 432
Structural and Motivational Features of Reward Systems 434
Skill- and Knowledge-Based Pay Systems 437
Performance-Based Pay Systems 438
Gain-Sharing Systems 440
Promotion Systems 442
Reward-System Process Issues 443
Application 17-3 Revising the Reward Systemat Lands’ End 444
Summary 447
Notes 447
CHAPTER 18
Developing Talent 451
Coaching and Mentoring 451
What Are the Goals? 452
The Results of Coaching and Mentoring 453
Career Planning and Development Interventions 453

The Results of Career Planning and Development 463
Management And Leadership Development Interventions 463
Application 18-1 PepsiCo’s Career Planning and Development
Framework 464
xii Contents
Application 18-2 Leading Your Business at Microsoft
Corporation 468
The Results of Development Interventions 469
Summary 469
Notes 470
CHAPTER 19
Managing Workforce Diversityand Wellness 473
Workforce Diversity Interventions 473
The Results for Diversity Interventions 478
Employee Stress and Wellness Interventions 479
Application 19-1 Embracing Employee Diversity at Baxter
Export 480
Applications Stages 481
The Results of Stress Management and Wellness Interventions

486
Summary 487
Notes 488
Application 19-2 Johnson & Johnson’s Health and Wellness
Program 490
Selected Cases 492
Employee Benefits at HealthCo 492
Sharpe BMW 497
PART 6
Strategic Change Interventions 504
CHAPTER 20
Transformational Change 505
Characteristics of Transformational Change 505
Change Is Triggered by Environmental and Internal Disruptions
506
Change Is Aimed at Competitive Advantage 506
Change Is Systemic and Revolutionary 507
Change Demands a New Organizing Paradigm 508
Change Is Driven by Senior Executives and Line Management
508
Change Involves Significant Learning 509
Integrated Strategic Change 509
Organization Design 512
Application 20-1 Managing Strategic Change at Microsoft
Canada 513
Conceptual Framework 515

Culture Change 518
Application 20-2 Organization Design at Deere & Company 519
Concept of Organization Culture 520
Organization Culture and Organization Effectiveness 521
Diagnosing Organization Culture 523
The Behavioral Approach 523
The Competing Values Approach 524
The Deep Assumptions Approach 525
Summary 528
Notes 529
Application 20-3 Culture Change at IBM 533
CHAPTER 21
Continuous Change 535
Self-Designing Organizations 535
The Demands of Adaptive Change 536
Learning Organizations 538
Conceptual Framework 538
xiiiContents
Application 21-1 Self-Design at American Healthways
Corporation 539
Organization Learning Interventions 542
Knowledge Management Interventions 547
Outcomes of OL and KM 550

Application 21-2 Implementing a Knowledge Management
System at Motorola Penang 551
Built-To-Change Organizations 553
Design Guidelines 553
Summary 556
Notes 556
Application 21-3 Creating a Built-to-Change Organizationat
Capital One Financial 559
CHAPTER 22
Transorganizational Change 561
Transorganizational Rationale 562
Mergers and Acquisitions 563
Strategic Alliance Interventions 568
Application 22-1 The Sprint and Nextel Merger: The First Two
Years 569
Network Interventions 571
Application 22-2 Building Alliance Relationships 572
Creating the Network 574
Managing Network Change 577
Application 22-3 Fragile and Robust—Network Change
in Toyota Motor Corporation 580

Summary 582
Notes 583
Selected Cases 586
Fourwinds Marina 586
Leading Strategic Change at DaVita: The Integration of the
Gambro Acquisition 597
PART 7
Special Applications of Organization Development 613
CHAPTER 23
Organization Development in Global Settings 614
Organization Development Outside the United States 615
Cultural Context 616
Economic Development 618
How Cultural Context and Economic Development Affect OD
Practice 619
Application 23-1 Modernizing China’s Human Resource
Development and Training Functions 623
Worldwide Organization Development 625
Worldwide Strategic Orientations 626
The International Strategic Orientation 627
The Global Strategic Orientation 629
The Multinational Strategic Orientation 631
Application 23-2 Implementing the Global Strategy: Changing
the Culture
of Work in Western China 632
The Transnational Strategic Orientation 636

Global Social Change 639
Global Social Change Organizations 640
Change Agent Roles and Skills 644
xiv Contents
Application 23-3 Social and Environmental Change at Floresta
645
Summary 647
Notes 647
CHAPTER 24
Organization Developmentin Nonindustrial Settings: Health
Care,
School Systems, the Public Sector, and Family-Owned
Businesses 651
Organization Development in Health Care 651
Trends in Health Care 652
Opportunities for Organization Development Practice 655
Success Principles for OD in Health Care 657
Conclusions 658
Organization Development in School Systems 659
Education: Industrial-Age Roots 659
Changing Conditions Cause Stress 659
Disappointing Reform Efforts 660
A New Metaphor for Schools 662
Future Opportunities for OD Practice 664
Technology’s Unique Role in School OD 665

Conclusions 667
Organization Developmentin the Public Sector 667
Comparing Public- and Private-Sector Organizations 669
Recent Research and Innovations in Public-Sector
Organizational Development 674
Conclusions 675
Organization Development in Family-Owned Businesses 675
The Family Business System 676
Family Business Developmental Stages 679
A Parallel Planning Process 680
Values 680
Critical Issues in Family Business 681
OD Interventions in Family Business System 684
Summary 688
Notes 689
CHAPTER 25
Future Directions in Organization Development 693
Trends within Organization Development 693
Traditional 693
Pragmatic 694
Scholarly 695
Implications for OD’s Future 695
Trends in the Context of Organization Development 697
The Economy 697
The Workforce 700
Organizations 701
Implications for OD’s Future 702
Summary 708

Notes 709
Integrative Cases 712
B. R. Richardson Timber Products Corporation 712
Building the Cuyahoga River Valley Organization* 728
Black & Decker International: Globalization of the
Architectural Hardware Line 738
Glossary 746
Name Index 756
Subject Index 760
xv
In preparing this new edition, we were struck by how the cliché
of “living in changing
times” is becoming almost ironic. The events of each day
remind us that things are mov-
ing far more quickly and unpredictably than we could ever have
imagined. Consider the
U.S. economic turmoil brought on by the mortgage- lending
crisis and the record price of
crude oil, which seemingly rises independent of consumption.
Or think about the run-
up to the 2008 U.S. presidential election. It strikes us as just a
bit surreal to see the word
CHANGE plastered on the speaker’s podium and waved by
supporters every time Barack
Obama comes out to speak. Not to be outdone, Hillary Clinton’s
key selling point is her
emphasis that she has the ability to lead change. By the time the

next edition of this book
comes out, a new president will be well into her or his first term
and we will no doubt
have experienced a lot of change.
Nor is change confined to the United States. As we write this,
the new prime min-
ister of France is shaking up that country’s work rules,
organizations, and policies.
Beijing is preparing to host the Olympic Games and show the
world a whole new
China. Countries in Africa are dealing with drought, AIDS,
military dictatorships, and
the emergence of democracy. The war in Iraq remains a point of
contention among
many, and the Middle East remains embroiled in controversy
and seemingly intrac-
table problems.
Nor is change restricted to governments and organizations. Our
personal lives are
embedded in change and the dilemmas it poses. Individuals and
families are finding
that the pace of change exceeds their physical and mental
capacity to cope with it. As
people experience change accelerating, they tend to feel
overwhelmed and alienated.
They experience what sociologists call “anomie,” a state of
being characterized by
the lack of social norms or anchors of stable and shared values.
Many Americans, for
example, want more time with their families but feel compelled
to work longer hours,
make more money, and satisfy escalating needs; they espouse
diversity but push other
cultures to do it “the American way”; they argue that

technology will find an answer
to the global warming problem and so justify acquiring a
Hummer.
Nor is change limited to social systems and their environments.
Organization
Development—the field of planned change itself—is changing.
In a time of unprec-
edented change, our views of how and when planned change
occurs, who leads and
controls it, and what contributes to its success are all changing.
Since the last edition
of this text, three OD handbooks have been published, a special
issue of the Journal of
Applied Behavioral Science has been devoted to “reinvigorate
OD” and another special
issue on international OD is on its way, and volumes on change
management and
organization transformation have continued to flood the
bookstores. Conversations
among OD practitioners and scholars about where the field is
and should be headed
have become more vigorous. The drive to understand and do
something about change
continues unabated.
In times like these, books on OD and change have never been
more relevant and
necessary. For our part, this is the ninth edition of the market-
leading text in the field.
OD is an applied field of change that uses behavioral science
knowledge to increase
preface

xvi
the capacity for change, and to improve the functioning and
performance of organiza-
tions. OD is more than change management, however, and the
field would do well to
differentiate itself from the mechanistic, programmatic
assumptions that organization
change can simply be scripted by various methods of
“involving” people and “enroll-
ing” them in the change. OD is not concerned about change for
change’s sake, a way
to implement the latest fad, or a pawn for doing management’s
bidding. It is about
learning and improving in ways that make individuals, groups,
organizations, and
ultimately the world better off and more capable of managing
change in the future.
Moreover, OD is more than a set of values. It is not a front for
the promulgation of
humanistic and spiritual beliefs nor a set of interventions that
boil down to “holding
hands and singing Kumbaya.” It is a set of testable ideas and
practices about how social
and technical systems can coexist to produce individual
satisfaction and sustainable
organizational results. Finally, OD is more than a set of tools
and techniques. It is not
a bunch of “interventions” looking to be applied in whatever
organization that comes
along. It is an integrated theory and practice aimed at increasing
the effectiveness of
organizations.
In today’s reality, OD is often misunderstood and its relevance

questioned. As men-
tioned above, OD is often used synonymously with change
management; it is often
defined and overly constrained by its association with a set of
“touchy-feely” values;
and it is often described as a hammer looking for a nail. As a
result, it is open to discus-
sion whether OD is up to the task of facilitating the changes
that organizations need to
exist and thrive in the world today. This is OD’s challenge in
the decade and century
ahead. Can it implement change and teach the system to change
itself at the same
time? Will it cling to its humanistic traditions and focus on
functioning or increase its
relevance by integrating more performance-related values? How
will OD incorporate
values related to globalization, cultural integration, the
concentration of wealth, and
environmental sustainability? Can it afford not to address the
issues that threaten an
organization’s survival? These are heady questions for a field
barely 55 years old.
The original edition of this text, authored by OD pioneer Edgar
Huse in 1975,
became a market leader because it faced the relevance issue. It
took an objective,
research perspective and placed OD practice on stronger
theoretical footing. Ed showed
that, in some cases, OD did produce meaningful results but that
additional work was
still needed. Sadly, Ed passed away following the publication of
the second edition. His
wife, Mary Huse, asked Tom Cummings to revise the book for
subsequent editions.

With the fifth edition, Tom asked Chris Worley to work with
him in writing the text.
The most recent editions have had an important influence on the
perception of
OD. While maintaining the book’s strengths of even treatment
and unbiased report-
ing, the newer editions made even larger strides in placing OD
on a strong theoretical
foundation. They broadened the scope and increased the
relevance of OD by includ-
ing interventions that had a content component, including work
design, employee
involvement, and organization structure. They took another step
toward relevance
and suggested that OD had begun to incorporate a strategic
perspective. This strategic
orientation proposed that OD could be as concerned with
performance issues as it was
with human potential. Effective OD, from this newer
perspective, relied as much on
knowledge about organization theory and econo mics as it did
on the behavioral sci-
ences. It is our greatest hope that the current edition continues
this tradition of rigor
and relevance.
REVISIONS TO THE NINTH EDITION
Our goal in the ninth edition is to update the field once again.
Although we have retained
several features of the prior editions, we have made some
important changes.
Preface

xvii
Strategic Emphasis
In keeping with the increasingly strategic focus of OD, we have
expanded the strategic
interventions part of the book from two chapters to three
chapters. Chapter 20 now
describes transformational change and focuses on the
interventions and processes
associated with episodic forms of large-scale change. There is a
whole new section on
organization redesign interventions. Chapter 21 is devoted to
describing continuous
change in organizations, with a new section on built-to-change
organizations. Finally,
Chapter 22 now combines interventions about multiple
organizations, including trans-
organizational development, mergers and acquisitions, joint
ventures, and networks.
Human Resources Interventions
In addition, the human resources interventions part of the text
has been completely
reorganized and revised. The original two chapters have been
expanded to three chap-
ters. While we retained the performance management chapter,
there is a new chapter
on developing talent (Chapter 18) that includes training,
leadership development,
career management, and coaching. Chapter 19 has been
refocused on managing work-
force diversity, wellness, and stress.
Key Chapter Revisions

Other chapters have received important updates and
improvements. In Chapter 14—
“Restructuring Organizations”—a new section on “customer-
centric” organizations
was added to reflect important advances in this area. In Chapter
24—“OD in Health
Care, School Systems, the Public Sector, and Family-Owned
Businesses”—each sec-
tion has been completely re-written by new guest authors.
Finally, Chapter 25—“Future
Directions in Organization Development”—has received a
thorough revision based on
the authors’ recent research.
DISTINGUISHING PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
The text is designed to facilitate the learning of OD theory and
interventions. We
maintained the chapter sequence from the previous edition.
Based on feedback from
reviewers, this format more closely matches the OD process.
Instructors can teach the
process and then link OD practice to the interventions.
Organization
The ninth edition is organized into seven parts. Following an
introductory chapter
that describes the definition and history of OD, Part 1 provides
an overview of orga-
nization development. It discusses the fundamental theories that
underlie planned
change (Chapter 2) and describes the people who practice it
(Chapter 3). Part 2 is an
eight-chapter description of the OD process. It describes how
OD practitioners enter
and contract with client systems (Chapter 4); diagnose

organizations, groups, and jobs
(Chapters 5 and 6); collect, analyze, and feedback diagnostic
data (Chapters 7 and 8);
design interventions (Chapter 9); lead and manage change
(Chapter 10); and evaluate
and institutionalize change (Chapter 11). In this manner,
professors can focus on the
OD process without distraction. Parts 3, 4, 5, and 6 then cover
the major OD interven-
tions used today according to the same classification scheme
used in previous editions
of the text. Part 3 covers human process interventions; Part 4
describes technostruc-
tural approaches; Part 5 presents interventions in human
resources management; and
Part 6 addresses strategic change interventions. In the final
section, Part 7, we cover
special applications of OD, including international OD (Chapter
23); OD in health
care, family businesses, schools, and the public sector (Chapter
24); and the future of
Preface
xviii
OD (Chapter 25). We believe this ordering provides professors
with more flexibility in
teaching OD.
Applications
Within each chapter, we describe actual situations in which
different OD techniques
or interventions were used. These applications provide students

with a chance to see
how OD is actually practiced in organizations. In the ninth
edition, more than 33%
of the applications are new and many others have been updated
to maintain the
text’s currency and relevance. In response to feedback from
reviewers, almost all of
the applications describe a real situation in a real organization
(although sometimes
we felt it necessary to use disguised names). In many cases, the
organizations are
large public companies that should be readily recognizable. We
have endeavored
to write applications based on our own OD practice or that have
appeared in the
popular literature. In addition, we have asked several of our
students to submit
descriptions of their own practice and these applications appear
throughout the text.
The time and effort to produce these vignettes of OD practice
for others is gratefully
acknowledged.
Cases
At the end of each major part in the book, we have included
cases to permit a more
in-depth discussion of the OD process. Seven of the 16 cases
are new to the ninth edi-
tion. We have kept some cases that have been favorites over the
years but have also
replaced some of the favorites with newer ones. Also in
response to feedback from
users of the text, we have endeavored to provide cases that vary
in levels of detail,
complexity, and sophistication to allow the professor some
flexibility in teaching the

material to either undergraduate or graduate students.
Internet Resources
Throughout the book, we have tried to provide references to the
Internet, particularly
to sites related to the organizations discussed. Although these
sites are often updated,
moved, or altogether abandoned (so we cannot guarantee that
the links will be main-
tained as cited), these provide students with an opportunity to
explore the information
available on the Internet.
Audience
This book can be used in a number of different ways and by a
variety of people. First,
it serves as a primary textbook in organization development for
students at both the
undergraduate and graduate levels. Second, the book can also
serve as an independent
study guide for individuals wishing to learn more about how
organization develop-
ment can improve productivity and human satisfaction. Third,
the book is intended to
be of value to OD professionals, executives and administrators,
specialists in such fields
as personnel, training, occupational stress, and human resources
management, and
anyone interested in the complex process known as organization
development.
EDUCATIONAL AIDS AND SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank (ISBN: 0-324-58057-6)
To assist instructors in the delivery of a course on organization
development, an

instructor’s manual is available. It has been revised in response
to feedback from users.
The manual contains material that can improve the student’s
appreciation of OD and
improve the instructor’s effectiveness in the classroom.
Preface
xix
Chapter Objectives and Lecture Notes For each chapter,
summary learning objec-
tives provide a quick orientation to the chapter’s material. The
material in the chapter
is then outlined and comments are made concerning important
pedagogical points,
such as crucial assumptions that should be noted for students,
important aspects of
practical application, and alternative points of view that might
be used to enliven class
discussion.
Exam Questions A variety of multiple choice, true/false, and
essay questions are
suggested for each chapter. Instructors can use these questions
directly or to suggest
additional questions reflecting the professor’s own style.
Case Notes For each case in the text, teaching notes have been
developed to assist
instructors in preparing for case discussions. The notes provide
an outline of the case,
suggestions about where to place the case during the course,
discussion questions to

focus student attention, and an analysis of the case situation. In
combination with the
professor’s own insights, the notes can help to enliven the case
discussion or role plays.
Audiovisual Materials Finally, a list is included of films,
videos, and other materials
that can be used to supplement different parts of the text, along
with the addresses and
phone numbers of vendors that supply the materials.
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM (0-324-58058-4)
Key instructor ancillaries (Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank,
ExamView, and PowerPoint
slides) are provided on CD-ROM, giving instructors the
ultimate tool for customizing
lectures and presentations.
ExamView
Available on the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM, ExamView
contains all of the ques-
tions in the printed Test Bank. This program is an easy-to-use
test creation software
compatible with Microsoft Windows. Instructors can add or edit
questions, instructions,
and answers, and select questions (randomly or numerically) by
previewing them on
the screen. Instructors can also create and administer quizzes
online, whether over the
Internet, a local area network (LAN), or a wide area network
(WAN).
PowerPoint TM Presentation Slides
Available on the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM and the Web
site, the PowerPoint pre-
sentation package consists of tables and figures used in the

book. These colorful slides can
greatly aid the integration of text material during lectures and
discussions.
Web Site
A rich Web site at
http://academic.cengage.com/management/cummings
complements the
text, providing many extras for the student and instructor.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our friends and colleagues are always asking about “the text.”
“Why did you include
that?” “Why didn’t you include this?” “When are you going to
revise it again?” “I have
some suggestions that might improve this section.” And so on.
It is gratifying, after
eight (and now nine) editions, that people find the book
provocative, refer to it, use it
to guide their practice, and assign it as required reading in their
courses. Even though
the text is revised every three years or so, it seems to be a
common subject of con-
versation whenever we get together with our OD colleagues and
students. When it
does come time for revision, it provides us a chance to refresh,
renew, and reestablish
Preface
http://academic.cengage.com/management/cummings
xx

our relationship with them. “What have you heard about what’s
new in OD?” “How’s
your family?” “Do you think we should reorganize the book?”
“What’s next in your
career?” “Did you see that article in (pick a journal or
magazine)?” “What have you
been reading lately?”
And then the research, reading, writing, editing, and proofing
begins. Writing,
debates, and editing occupy most of our time. “Can we say that
better, more efficiently,
and more clearly?” “Should we create a new section or revise
the existing one?” “Do
you really think people want to read that?” The permission
requests go out and come
in quickly . . . at least most of them. Follow up faxes, reminder
e-mails, and urgent
phone calls are made. The search for new cases and applications
is an ongoing activity.
“Where can we find good descriptions of change?” “Would you
be willing to write up
that case?” Deadlines come . . . and go. The copy editing
process is banter between two
strangers. “No, no, no, I meant to say that.” “Yes, that’s a good
idea, I hadn’t thought
of that.” Six months into it, our wives start to ask, “When will it
be done?” Then, the
result of having done this before, they ask, “no, I meant when
will it be done, done?”
When the final proofs arrive, things start to look finished. We
get to see the art work
and the cover design, and a new set of problems emerge.
“Where did that come from?”
“No, this goes there, that goes here.” Doesn’t this sound fun?

So, yes, we continue to hope that our readers, colleagues, and
friends ask us about
“the text.” We like talking about it, discussing it, and hearing
about what we did right
or wrong. But please don’t ask us about writing “the text.”
We’re very happy to be done
(yes, done, done).
Finally, we’d like to thank those who supported us in this
effort. We are grateful to our
families: Chailin Cummings and the Worley clan, Debbie,
Sarah, Hannah, and Samuel.
We would also like to thank our students for their comments on
the previous edition,
for contributing many of the applications, and for helping us to
try out new ideas and
perspectives. A particular word of thanks goes to Gordon
Brooks, Brigette Worthen, and
the Pepperdine MSOD faculty (Ann Feyerherm, Miriam Lacey,
Terri Egan, and Gary
Mangiofico). Our colleagues at USC’s Center for Effective
Organizations—Ed Lawler,
Sue Mohrman, John Boudreau, Alec Levenson, Jim O’Toole,
Jay Conger, and Jay
Galbraith—have been consistent sources of support and
intellectual inquiry. As well,
the following individuals reviewed the text and influenced our
thinking with their hon-
est and constructive feedback:
Ben Dattner, New York University
Diana Wong, Eastern Michigan University
Merwyn L. Strate, Purdue University
Bruce Brewer, University of West Georgia
Susan A. Lynham, Texas A&M University

We would also like to express our appreciation to members of
the staff at Cengage
Learning, South-Western, for their aid and encouragement.
Special thanks go to Joe
Sabatino, Denise Simon, and Jean Buttrom for their help and
guidance throughout the
development of this revision. Menaka Gupta patiently made sure
that the editing and
producing of our book went smoothly.
Thomas G. Cummings Christopher G. Worley
Palos Verdes Estates, California San Juan Capistrano,
California
March, 2008
Preface
1
General Introduction to Organization
Development
This is a book about organization development
(OD)—a process that applies a broad range of
behavioral science knowledge and practices to
help organizations build their capacity to change
and to achieve greater effectiveness, includ-
ing increased financial performance, customer
satisfaction, and organization member engage-
ment. Organization development differs from
other planned change efforts, such as project
management or innovation, because the focus
is on building the organization’s ability to assess
its current functioning and to achieve its goals.
Moreover, OD is oriented to improving the total
system—the organization and its parts in the con-

text of the larger environment that affects them.
This book reviews the broad background of
OD and examines assumptions, strategies and
models, intervention techniques, and other
aspects of OD. This chapter provides an intro-
duction to OD, describing first the concept
of OD itself. Second, it explains why OD has
expanded rapidly in the past 50 years, both
in terms of people’s need to work with and
through others in organizations and in terms
of organizations’ need to adapt in a complex
and changing world. Third, it reviews briefly
the history of OD, and fourth, it describes the
evolution of OD into its current state. This intro-
duction to OD is followed by an overview of the
rest of the book.
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT DEFINED
Organization development is both a professional field of social
action and an area of
scientific inquiry. The practice of OD covers a wide spectrum of
activities, with seem-
ingly endless variations upon them. Team building with top
corporate management,
structural change in a municipality, and job enrichment in a
manufacturing firm are all
examples of OD. Similarly, the study of OD addresses a broad
range of topics, including
the effects of change, the methods of organizational change, and
the factors influenc-
ing OD success.
A number of definitions of OD exist and are presented in Table
1.1. Each definition

has a slightly different emphasis. For example, Burke’s
description focuses attention
on culture as the target of change; French’s definition is
concerned with OD’s long-
term interest and the use of consultants; and Beckhard’s and
Beer’s definitions address
the process of OD. More recently, Burke and Bradford’s
definition broadens the range
and interests of OD. Worley and Feyerherm suggested that for a
process to be called
organization development, (1) it must focus on or result in the
change of some aspect
of the organizational system; (2) there must be learning or the
transfer of knowledge
or skill to the client system; and (3) there must be evidence of
improvement in or an
intention to improve the effectiveness of the client system.1 The
following definition
incorporates most of these views and is used in this book:
Organization development is a
systemwide application and transfer of behavioral science
knowledge to the planned development,
2 CHAPTER 1 General Introduction to Organization
Development
improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies, structures,
and processes that lead to organiza-
tion effectiveness. This definition emphasizes several features
that differentiate OD from
other approaches to organizational change and improvement,
such as management
consulting, innovation, project management, and operations
management. The defi-

nition also helps to distinguish OD from two related subjects,
change management and
organization change, that also are addressed in this book.
First, OD applies to changes in the strategy, structure, and/or
processes of an entire
system, such as an organization, a single plant of a multiplant
firm, a department
or work group, or individual role or job. A change program
aimed at modifying an
organization’s strategy, for example, might focus on how the
organization relates to a
wider environment and on how those relationships can be
improved. It might include
changes both in the grouping of people to perform tasks
(structure) and in methods
of communicating and solving problems (process) to support the
changes in strategy.
Similarly, an OD program directed at helping a top management
team become more
effective might focus on interactions and problem-solving
processes within the group.
This focus might result in the improved ability of top
management to solve company
problems in strategy and structure. This contrasts with
approaches focusing on one or
only a few aspects of a system, such as technological innovation
or operations manage-
ment. In these approaches, attention is narrowed to
improvement of particular prod-
ucts or processes, or to development of production or service
delivery functions.
Second, OD is based on the application and transfer of
behavioral science knowledge
and practice, including microconcepts, such as leadership,

group dynamics, and work
design, and macroapproaches, such as strategy, organization
design, and international
Definitions of Organization Development
Organization development is a planned process of change in an
organization’s
culture through the utilization of behavioral science technology,
research, and
theory. (Warner Burke)2
Organization development refers to a long-range effort to
improve an organization’s
problem-solving capabilities and its ability to cope with
changes in its external
environment with the help of external or internal behavioral-
scientist consultants,
or change agents, as they are sometimes called. (Wendell
French)3
Organization development is an effort (1) planned, (2)
organization-wide, and
(3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organization
effectiveness and health
through (5) planned interventions in the organization’s
“processes,” using
behavioral science knowledge. (Richard Beckhard)4
Organization development is a systemwide process of data
collection, diagnosis,
action planning, intervention, and evaluation aimed at (1)
enhancing congruence
among organizational structure, process, strategy, people, and
culture; (2) developing
new and creative organizational solutions; and (3) developing
the organization’s self-
renewing capacity. It occurs through the collaboration of
organizational members

working with a change agent using behavioral science theory,
research, and
technology. (Michael Beer)5
Based on (1) a set of values, largely humanistic; (2) application
of the behavioral
sciences; and (3) open systems theory, organization
development is a system-
wide process of planned change aimed toward improving overall
organization
effectiveness by way of enhanced congruence of such key
organization dimensions
as external environment, mission, strategy, leadership, culture,
structure, information
and reward systems, and work policies and procedures. (Warner
Burke and David
Bradford)6
•
•
•
•
•
[Table 1.1][Table 1.1]
3CHAPTER 1 General Introduction to Organization
Development
relations. These subjects distinguish OD from such applications

as management consult-
ing, technological innovation, or operations management that
emphasize the economic,
financial, and technical aspects of organizations. These
approaches tend to neglect the
personal and social characteristics of a system. Moreover, OD is
distinguished by its
intent to transfer behavioral science knowledge and skill so that
the system is more
capable of carrying out planned change in the future.
Third, OD is concerned with managing planned change, but not
in the formal sense
typically associated with management consulting or project
management, which tends
to comprise programmatic and expert-driven approaches to
change. Rather, OD is
more an adaptive process for planning and implementing change
than a blueprint for
how things should be done. It involves planning to diagnose and
solve organizational
problems, but such plans are flexible and often revised as new
information is gathered
as the change program progresses. If, for example, there was
concern about the perfor-
mance of a set of international subsidiaries, a reorganization
process might begin with
plans to assess the current relationships between the
international divisions and the
corporate headquarters and to redesign them if necessary. These
plans would be modi-
fied if the assessment discovered that most of the senior
management teams were not
given adequate cross-cultural training prior to their
international assignments.

Fourth, OD involves the design, implementation, and the
subsequent reinforce-
ment of change. It moves beyond the initial efforts to implement
a change program
to a longer-term concern for appropriately institutionalizing
new activities within the
organization. For example, implementing self-managed work
teams might focus on
ways in which supervisors could give workers more control over
work methods. After
workers had more control, attention would shift to ensuring that
supervisors contin-
ued to provide that freedom. That assurance might include
rewarding supervisors for
managing in a participative style. This attention to
reinforcement is similar to training
and development approaches that address maintenance of new
skills or behaviors,
but it differs from other change perspectives that do not address
how a change can be
institutionalized.
Finally, OD is oriented to improving organizational
effectiveness. Effectiveness is
best measured along three dimensions. First, OD affirms that an
effective organization
is adaptable; it is able to solve its own problems and focus
attention and resources on
achieving key goals. OD helps organization members gain the
skills and knowledge
necessary to conduct these activities by involving them in the
change process. Second,
an effective organization has high financial and technical
performance, including
sales growth, acceptable profits, quality products and services,
and high productiv-

ity. OD helps organizations achieve these ends by leveraging
social science practices
to lower costs, improve products and services, and increase
productivity. Finally, an
effective organization has satisfied and loyal customers or other
external stakeholders
and an engaged, satisfied, and learning workforce. The
organization’s performance
responds to the needs of external groups, such as stockholders,
customers, suppli-
ers, and government agencies, which provide the organization
with resources and
legitimacy. Moreover, it is able to attract and motivate effective
employees, who then
perform at higher levels. Other forms of organizational change
clearly differ from OD
in their focus. Management consulting, for example, primarily
addresses financial
performance, whereas operations management or industrial
engineering focuses on
productivity.
Organization development can be distinguished from change
management and
organizational change. OD and change management both
address the effective imple-
mentation of planned change. They are both concerned with the
sequence of activities,
processes, and leadership issues that produce organization
improvements. They differ,
however, in their underlying value orientation. OD’s behavioral
science foundation
supports values of human potential, participation, and
development in addition to

Development
performance and competitive advantage. Change management
focuses more narrowly
on values of cost, quality, and schedule.7 As a result, OD’s
distinguishing feature is its
concern with the transfer of knowledge and skill so that the
system is more able to
manage change in the future. Change management does not
necessarily require the
transfer of these skills. In short, all OD involves change
management, but change man-
agement may not involve OD.
Similarly, organizational change is a broader concept than OD.
As discussed above,
organization development can be applied to managing
organizational change. However,
it is primarily concerned with managing change in such a way
that knowledge and skills
are transferred to build the organization’s capability to achieve
goals and solve problems.
It is intended to change the organization in a particular
direction, toward improved
problem solving, responsiveness, quality of work life, and
effectiveness. Organizational
change, in contrast, is more broadly focused and can apply to
any kind of change, includ-
ing technical and managerial innovations, organization decline,
or the evolution of a
system over time. These changes may or may not be directed at
making the organization
more developed in the sense implied by OD.

The behavioral sciences have developed useful concepts and
methods for helping
organizations to deal with changing environments, competitor
initiatives, technologi-
cal innovation, globalization, or restructuring. They help
managers and administrators
to manage the change process. Many of these concepts and
techniques are described
in this book, particularly in relation to managing change.
THE GROWTH AND RELEVANCE OF ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT
In each of the previous editions of this book, we argued that
organizations must
adapt to increasingly complex and uncertain technological,
economic, political, and
cultural changes. We also argued that OD could help an
organization to create effec-
tive responses to these changes and, in many cases, to
proactively influence the
strategic direction of the firm. The rapidly changing conditions
of the past few years
confirm our arguments and accentuate their relevance.
According to several observ-
ers, organizations are in the midst of unprecedented uncertainty
and chaos, and
nothing short of a management revolution will save them.8
Three major trends are
shaping change in organizations: globalization, information
technology, and manage-
rial innovation.9
First, globalization is changing the markets and environments in
which organizations
operate as well as the way they function. New governments,

new leadership, new mar-
kets, and new countries are emerging and creating a new global
economy with both
opportunities and threats.10 The toppling of the Berlin Wall
symbolized and energized
the reunification of Germany; the European Union created a
cohesive economic block
that alters the face of global markets; entrepreneurs appeared in
Russia, the Balkans,
and Siberia to transform the former Soviet Union; terrorism has
reached into every
corner of economic and social life; and China is emerging as an
open market and global
economic influence. The rapid spread of Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
and its economic impact clearly demonstrated the
interconnectedness among the social
environment, organizations, and the global economy.
Second, information technology is redefining the traditional
business model by
changing how work is performed, how knowledge is used, and
how the cost of doing
business is calculated. The way an organization collects, stores,
manipulates, uses,
and transmits information can lower costs or increase the value
and quality of prod-
ucts and services. Information technology, for example, is at the
heart of emerging
e-commerce strategies and organizations. Amazon.com, Yahoo!,
and eBay are among
Development

the survivors of a busted dot-com bubble, Google has emerged
as a major competitor
to Microsoft, and the amount of business being conducted on
the Internet is pro-
jected to grow at double-digit rates. Moreover, the underlying
rate of innovation is
not expected to decline. Electronic data interchange—a state-of-
the-art technology
application a few years ago—is now considered routine business
practice. The ability
to move information easily and inexpensively throughout and
among organizations
has fueled the downsizing, delayering, and restructuring of
firms. The Internet has
enabled a new form of work known as telecommuting;
organization members from
Captial One and Cigna can work from their homes without ever
going to the office.
Finally, information technology is changing how knowledge is
used. Information that
is widely shared reduces the concentration of power at the top
of the organization.
In choosing “You” as the 2006 Person of the Year, Time
magazine noted that the year
was “a story about community and collaboration on a scale
never seen before. It’s
about . . . Wikipedia . . . YouTube and . . . MySpace. It’s about
the many wresting power
from the few and helping one another for nothing and how that
will not only change
the world, but also change the way the world changes (emphasis
added).”11 Organization
members now share the same key information that senior
managers once used to
control decision making.

Third, managerial innovation has responded to the globalization
and information technol-
ogy trends and has accelerated their impact on organizations.
New organizational forms,
such as networks, strategic alliances, and virtual corporations,
provide organizations with
new ways of thinking about how to manufacture goods and
deliver services. The strategic
alliance, for example, has emerged as one of the indispensable
tools in strategy imple-
mentation. No single organization, not even IBM, Mitsubishi, or
General Electric, can
control the environmental and market uncertainty it faces. Sun
Microsystems’ network is
so complex that some products it sells are never touched by a
Sun employee. In addition,
change innovations, such as downsizing or reengineering, have
radically reduced the size
of organizations and increased their flexibility; new large-group
interventions, such as the
search conference and open space, have increased the speed
with which organizational
change can take place; and organization learning interventions
have acknowledged and
leveraged knowledge as a critical organizational resource.12
Managers, OD practitioners,
and researchers argue that these forces not only are powerful in
their own right but are
interrelated. Their interaction makes for a highly uncertain and
chaotic environment for
all kinds of organizations, including manufacturing and service
firms and those in the
public and private sectors. There is no question that these forces
are profoundly affecting
organizations.

Fortunately, a growing number of organizations are undertaking
the kinds of
organizational changes needed to survive and prosper in today’s
environment. They
are making themselves more streamlined and nimble, more
responsive to external
demands, and more ecologically sustainable. They are involving
employees in key
decisions and paying for performance rather than for time. They
are taking the initia-
tive in innovating and managing change, rather than simply
responding to what has
already happened.
Organization development plays a key role in helping
organizations change them-
selves. It helps organizations assess themselves and their
environments and revitalize
and rebuild their strategies, structures, and processes. OD helps
organization mem-
bers go beyond surface changes to transform the underlying
assumptions and values
governing their behaviors. The different concepts and methods
discussed in this book
increasingly are finding their way into government agencies,
manufacturing firms, mul-
tinational corporations, service industries, educational
institutions, and not-for-profit
organizations. Perhaps at no other time has OD been more
responsive and practically
relevant to organizations’ needs to operate effectively in a
highly complex and chang-
ing world.

Development
OD is obviously important to those who plan a professional
career in the field, either
as an internal consultant employed by an organization or as an
external consultant
practicing in many organizations. A career in OD can be highly
rewarding, providing
challenging and interesting assignments working with managers
and employees to
improve their organizations and their work lives. In today’s
environment, the demand
for OD professionals is rising rapidly. For example, large
professional services firms
must have effective “change management” practices to be
competitive. Career oppor-
tunities in OD should continue to expand in the United States
and abroad.
Organization development also is important to those who have
no aspirations to
become professional practitioners. All managers and
administrators are responsible for
supervising and developing subordinates and for improving
their departments’ perfor-
mance. Similarly, all staff specialists, such as financial
analysts, engineers, information
technologists, or market researchers, are responsible for
offering advice and counsel to
managers and for introducing new methods and practices.
Finally, OD is important to
general managers and other senior executives because OD can
help the whole organi-
zation be more flexible, adaptable, and effective.

Organization development can also help managers and staff
personnel perform their
tasks more effectively. It can provide the skills and knowledge
necessary for establish-
ing effective interpersonal relationships. It can show personnel
how to work effectively
with others in diagnosing complex problems and in devising
appropriate solutions. It
can help others become committed to the solutions, thereby
increasing chances for
their successful implementation. In short, OD is highly relevant
to anyone having to
work with and through others in organizations.
A SHORT HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT
A brief history of OD will help to clarify the evolution of the
term as well as some of the
problems and confusion that have surrounded it. As currently
practiced, OD emerged
from five major backgrounds or stems, as shown in Figure 1.1.
The first was the growth
of the National Training Laboratories (NTL) and the
development of training groups,
otherwise known as sensitivity training or T-groups. The second
stem of OD was the
classic work on action research conducted by social scientists
interested in applying
research to managing change. An important feature of action
research was a technique
known as survey feedback. Kurt Lewin, a prolific theorist,
researcher, and practitioner
in group dynamics and social change, was instrumental in the
development of T-groups,

survey feedback, and action research. His work led to the
creation of OD and still serves
as a major source of its concepts and methods. The third stem
reflects a normative view
of OD. Rensis Likert’s participative management framework
and Blake and Mouton’s
Grid® OD suggest a “one best way” to design and operate
organizations. The fourth
background is the approach focusing on productivity and the
quality of work life. The
fifth stem of OD, and the most recent influence on current
practice, involves strategic
change and organization transformation.
Laboratory Training Background
This stem of OD pioneered laboratory training, or the T-group—
a small, unstruc-
tured group in which participants learn from their own
interactions and evolving
group processes about such issues as interpersonal relations,
personal growth, lead-
ership, and group dynamics. Essentially, laboratory training
began in the summer
of 1946, when Kurt Lewin and his staff at the Research Center
for Group Dynamics
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) were asked
by the Connecticut
Interracial Commission and the Committee on Community
Interrelations of the
Development
Laboratory Training

Action Research/Survey Feedback
Normative Approaches
Quality of Work Life
Strategic Change
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
C
U
R
R
E
N
T
O
D
P
R
A
C
T
IC
E
Today

American Jewish Congress for help in research on training
community leaders. A
workshop was developed, and the community leaders were
brought together to
learn about leadership and to discuss problems. At the end of
each day, the research-
ers discussed privately what behaviors and group dynamics they
had observed. The
community leaders asked permission to sit in on these feedback
sessions. Reluctant
at first, the researchers finally agreed. Thus, the first T-group
was formed in which
people reacted to data about their own behavior.13 The
researchers drew two conclu-
sions about this first T-group experiment: (1) Feedback about
group interaction was
a rich learning experience, and (2) the process of “group
building” had potential for
learning that could be transferred to “back-home” situations.14
As a result of this experience, the Office of Naval Research and
the National Education
Association provided financial backing to form the National
Training Laboratories, and
Gould Academy in Bethel, Maine, was selected as a site for
further work (since then,
Bethel has played an important part in NTL). The first Basic
Skill Groups were offered
in the summer of 1947. The program was so successful that the
Carnegie Foundation
provided support for programs in 1948 and 1949. This led to a
permanent program for
NTL within the National Education Association.
In the 1950s, three trends emerged: (1) the emergence of

regional laboratories,
(2) the expansion of summer program sessions to year-round
sessions, and (3) the
expansion of the T-group into business and industry, with NTL
members becom-
ing increasingly involved with industry programs. Notable
among these industry
efforts was the pioneering work of Douglas McGregor at Union
Carbide, of Herbert
Shepard and Robert Blake at Esso Standard Oil (now
ExxonMobil), of McGregor and
Richard Beckhard at General Mills, and of Bob Tannenbaum at
TRW Space Systems.15
The Five Stems of OD Practice
[Figure 1.1][Figure 1.1]
Development
Applications of T-group methods at these companies spawned
the term “organization
development” and, equally important, led corporate personnel
and industrial relations
specialists to expand their roles to offer internal consulting
services to managers.16
Over time, T-groups have declined as an OD intervention. They
are closely associ-
ated with that side of OD’s reputation as a “touchy-feely”
process. NTL, as well as
UCLA and Stanford, continues to offer T-groups to the public, a
number of proprietary
programs continue to thrive, and Pepperdine University and

American University con-
tinue to utilize T-groups as part of master’s level OD
practitioner education. The practi-
cal aspects of T-group techniques for organizations gradually
became known as team
building—a process for helping work groups become more
effective in accomplishing
tasks and satisfying member needs. Team building is one of the
most common and
institutionalized forms of OD today.
Action Research and Survey Feedback Background
Kurt Lewin also was involved in the second movement that led
to OD’s emergence as a
practical field of social science. This second background refers
to the processes of action
research and survey feedback. The action research contribution
began in the 1940s with
studies conducted by social scientists John Collier, Kurt Lewin,
and William Whyte.
They discovered that research needed to be closely linked to
action if organization
members were to use it to manage change. A collaborative
effort was initiated between
organization members and social scientists to collect research
data about an organiza-
tion’s functioning, to analyze it for causes of problems, and to
devise and implement
solutions. After implementation, further data were collected to
assess the results, and
the cycle of data collection and action often continued. The
results of action research
were twofold: Members of organizations were able to use
research on themselves to
guide action and change, and social scientists were able to study
that process to derive

new knowledge that could be used elsewhere.
Among the pioneering action research studies were the work of
Lewin and his
students at the Harwood Manufacturing Company17 and the
classic research by Lester
Coch and John French on overcoming resistance to change.18
The latter study led to the
development of participative management as a means of getting
employees involved in
planning and managing change. Other notable action research
contributions included
Whyte and Edith Hamilton’s famous study of Chicago’s
Tremont Hotel19 and Collier’s
efforts to apply action research techniques to improving race
relations when he was
commissioner of Indian affairs from 1933 to 1945.20 These
studies did much to establish
action research as integral to organization change. Today, it is
the backbone of many
OD applications.
A key component of most action research studies was the
systematic collection of
survey data that were fed back to the client organization.
Following Lewin’s death in
1947, his Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT moved to
Michigan and joined
with the Survey Research Center as part of the Institute for
Social Research. The
institute was headed by Rensis Likert, a pioneer in developing
scientific approaches to
attitude surveys. His doctoral dissertation at Columbia
University developed the widely
used 5-point “Likert Scale.”21

In an early study by the institute, Likert and Floyd Mann
administered a
companywide survey of management and employee attitudes at
Detroit Edison.22
The feedback process that evolved was an “interlocking chain of
conferences.” The
major findings of the survey were first reported to the top
management and then
transmitted throughout the organization. The feedback sessions
were conducted in
task groups, with supervisors and their immediate subordinates
discussing the data
together. Although there was little substantial research
evidence, the researchers
intuitively felt that this was a powerful process for change.
Development
In 1950, eight accounting departments asked for a repeat of the
survey, thus gen-
erating a new cycle of feedback meetings. In four departments,
feedback approaches
were used, but the method varied; two departments received
feedback only at the
departmental level; and because of changes in key personnel,
nothing was done in the
remaining two departments.
A third follow-up study indicated that more significant and
positive changes, such
as job satisfaction, had occurred in the departments receiving
feedback than in the two
departments that did not participate. From those findings, Likert

and Mann derived
several conclusions about the effects of survey feedback on
organization change. This
led to extensive applications of survey-feedback methods in a
variety of settings. The
common pattern of data collection, data feedback, action
planning, implementation,
and follow-up data collection in both action research and survey
feedback can be seen
in these examples.
Normative Background
The intellectual and practical advances from the laboratory
training stem and the action
research/survey-feedback stem were followed closely by the
belief that a human rela-
tions approach represented a “one best way” to manage
organizations. This normative
belief was exemplified in research that associated Likert’s
Participative Management
(System 4, as outlined below) style and Blake and Mouton’s
Grid OD program with
organizational effectiveness.23
Likert’s Participative Management Program characterized
organizations as having one
of four types of management systems:24
Exploitive authoritative systems (System 1) exhibit an
autocratic, top-down
approach to leadership. Employee motivation is based on
punishment and occa-
sional rewards. Communication is primarily downward, and
there is little lateral
interaction or teamwork. Decision making and control reside
primarily at the top of

the organization. System 1 results in mediocre performance.
Benevolent authoritative systems (System 2) are similar to
System 1, except
that management is more paternalistic. Employees are allowed a
little more inter-
action, communication, and decision making but within
boundaries defined by
management.
Consultative systems (System 3) increase employee interaction,
communication,
and decision making. Although employees are consulted about
problems and deci-
sions, management still makes the final decisions. Productivity
is good, and employ-
ees are moderately satisfied with the organization.
Participative group systems (System 4) are almost the opposite
of System 1.
Designed around group methods of decision making and
supervision, this system fos-
ters high degrees of member involvement and participation.
Work groups are highly
involved in setting goals, making decisions, improving methods,
and appraising
results. Communication occurs both laterally and vertically, and
decisions are linked
throughout the organization by overlapping group membership.
System 4 achieves
high levels of productivity, quality, and member satisfaction.
Likert applied System 4 management to organizations using a
survey-feedback process.
The intervention generally started with organization members
completing the Profile of
Organizational Characteristics.25 The survey asked members
for their opinions about both
the present and ideal conditions of six organizational features:

leadership, motivation,
communication, decisions, goals, and control. In the second
stage, the data were fed
back to different work groups within the organization. Group
members examined the
discrepancy between their present situation and their ideal,
generally using System 4
•
•
•
•
Development
as the ideal benchmark, and generated action plans to move the
organization toward
System 4 conditions.
Blake and Mouton’s Grid Organization Development originated
from research about
managerial and organizational effectiveness.26 Data gathered
on organizational excel-
lence from 198 organizations located in the United States,
Japan, and Great Britain
found that the two foremost barriers to excellence were
planning and communica-
tions.27 Each of these barriers was researched further to
understand its roots, and the
research resulted in a normative model of leadership—the

Managerial Grid.
According to the Managerial Grid, an individual’s style can be
described according
to his or her concern for production and concern for people.28
A concern for produc-
tion covers a range of behaviors, such as accomplishing
productive tasks, developing
creative ideas, making quality policy decisions, establishing
thorough and high-quality
staff services, or creating efficient workload measurements.
Concern for production is
not limited to things but also may involve human
accomplishment within the organi-
zation, regardless of the assigned tasks or activities. A concern
for people encompasses
a variety of issues, including concern for the individual’s
personal worth, good working
conditions, a degree of involvement or commitment to
completing the job, security, a
fair salary structure and fringe benefits, and good social and
other relationships. Each
dimension is measured on a 9-point scale and results in 81
possible leadership styles.
For example, 1,9 managers have a low concern for production
and a high concern
for people: They view people’s feelings, attitudes, and needs as
valuable in their own
right. This type of manager strives to provide subordinates with
work conditions that
provide ease, security, and comfort. On the other hand, 9,1
managers have a high
concern for production but a low concern for people: They
minimize the attitudes and
feelings of subordinates and give little attention to individual

creativity, conflict, and
commitment. As a result, the focus is on the work organization.
Blake and Mouton proposed that the 9,9 managerial style is the
most effective in
overcoming the communications barrier to corporate excellence.
The basic assumptions
behind this managerial style differ qualitatively and
quantitatively from those underly-
ing the other managerial styles, which assume there is an
inherent conflict between the
needs of the organization and the needs of people. By showing a
high concern for both
people and production, managers allow employees to think and
to influence the organi-
zation, thus promoting active support for organizational plans.
Employee participation
means that better communication is critical; therefore,
necessary information is shared
by all relevant parties. Moreover, better communication means
self-direction and self-
control, rather than unquestioning, blind obedience.
Organizational commitment arises
out of discussion, deliberation, and debate over major
organizational issues.
One of the most structured interventions in OD, Blake and
Mouton’s Grid
Organization Development has two key objectives: to improve
planning by develop-
ing a strategy for organizational excellence based on clear
logic, and to help managers
gain the necessary knowledge and skills to supervise
effectively. It consists of six phases
designed to analyze an entire business and to overcome the
planning and communi-

cations barriers to corporate excellence. The first phase is the
Grid Seminar, a 1-week
program where participants analyze their personal style and
learn methods of problem
solving. Phase two consists of team development and phase
three involves intergroup
development. In phase four, an ideal model of organizational
excellence is developed
and in phase five, the model is implemented. The final phase
consists of an evaluation
of the organization.
Despite some research support, the normative approach to
change has given way
to a contingency view that acknowledges the influence of the
external environment,
technology, and other forces in determining the appropriate
organization design
and management practices. Still, Likert’s participative
management and Blake and
Mouton’s Grid OD frameworks are both used in organizations
today.
Development
Productivity and Quality-of-Work-Life Background
The contribution of the productivity and quality-of-work-life
(QWL) background to OD
can be described in two phases. The first phase is described by
the original projects devel-
oped in Europe in the 1950s and their emergence in the United
States during the 1960s.
Based on the research of Eric Trist and his colleagues at the

Tavistock Institute of Human
Relations in London, early practitioners in Great Britain,
Ireland, Norway, and Sweden
developed work designs aimed at better integrating technology
and people.29 These
QWL programs generally involved joint participation by unions
and management in the
design of work and resulted in work designs giving employees
high levels of discretion,
task variety, and feedback about results. Perhaps the most
distinguishing characteristic of
these QWL programs was the discovery of self-managing work
groups as a form of work
design. These groups were composed of multiskilled workers
who were given the neces-
sary autonomy and information to design and manage their own
task performances.
As these programs migrated to America, a variety of concepts
and techniques were
adopted and the approach tended to be more mixed than in
European practice. For
example, two definitions of QWL emerged during its initial
development.30 QWL was
first defined in terms of people’s reaction to work, particularly
individual outcomes
related to job satisfaction and mental health. Using this
definition, QWL focused pri-
marily on the personal consequences of the work experience and
how to improve
work to satisfy personal needs.
A second definition of QWL defined it as an approach or
method.31 People defined
QWL in terms of specific techniques and approaches used for
improving work.32 It was

viewed as synonymous with methods such as job enrichment,
self-managed teams,
and labor–management committees. This technique orientation
derived mainly from
the growing publicity surrounding QWL projects, such as the
General Motors–United
Auto Workers project at Tarrytown and the Gaines Pet Food
plant project. These pio-
neering projects drew attention to specific approaches for
improving work.
The excitement and popularity of this first phase of QWL in the
United States lasted
until the mid-1970s, when other more pressing issues, such as
inflation and energy
costs, diverted national attention. However, starting in 1979, a
second phase of QWL
activity emerged. A major factor contributing to the resurgence
of QWL was growing
international competition faced by the United States in markets
at home and abroad. It
became increasingly clear that the relatively low cost and high
quality of foreign-made
goods resulted partially from the management practices used
abroad, especially in
Japan. Books extolling the virtues of Japanese management,
such as Ouchi’s Theory Z,33
made best-seller lists.
As a result, QWL programs expanded beyond their initial focus
on work design to
include other features of the workplace that can affect employee
productivity and satis-
faction, such as reward systems, work flows, management
styles, and the physical work
environment. This expanded focus resulted in larger-scale and

longer-term projects than
had the early job enrichment programs and shifted attention
beyond the individual
worker to work groups and the larger work context. Equally
important, it added the
critical dimension of organizational efficiency to what had been
up to that time a primary
concern for the human dimension.
At one point, the productivity and QWL approach became so
popular that it was
called an ideological movement. This was particularly evident
in the spread of qual-
ity circles within many companies. Popularized in Japan,
quality circles are groups of
employees trained in problem-solving methods that meet
regularly to resolve work-
environment, productivity, and quality-control concerns and to
develop more efficient
ways of working. At the same time, many of the QWL programs
started in the early
1970s were achieving success. Highly visible corporations, such
as General Motors, Ford,
and Honeywell, and unions, such as the United Automobile
Workers, the Oil, Chemical,
and Atomic Workers, the Communications Workers of America,
and the Steelworkers,
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were more willing to publicize their QWL efforts. In 1980, for
example, more than
1,800 people attended an international QWL conference in

Toronto, Canada. Unlike
previous conferences, which were dominated by academics, the
presenters at Toronto
were mainly managers, workers, and unionists from private and
public corporations.
Today, this second phase of QWL activity continues primarily
under the banner of
“employee involvement” (EI) as well as total quality
management and six-sigma pro-
grams, rather than of QWL. For many OD practitioners, the
term EI signifies, more than
the name QWL, the growing emphasis on how employees can
contribute more to run-
ning the organization so it can be more flexible, productive, and
competitive. Recently,
the term “employee empowerment” has been used
interchangeably with the term
EI, the former suggesting the power inherent in moving decision
making downward
in the organization.34 Employee empowerment may be too
restrictive, however. Because
it draws attention to the power aspects of these interventions, it
may lead practitioners
to neglect other important elements needed for success, such as
information, skills,
and rewards. Consequently, EI seems broader and less
restrictive than does employee
empowerment as a banner for these approaches to organizational
improvement.
Strategic Change Background
The strategic change background is a recent influence on OD’s
evolution. As organ-
izations and their technological, political, and social
environments have become more

complex and more uncertain, the scale and intricacies of
organizational change have
increased. This trend has produced the need for a strategic
perspective from OD and
encouraged planned change processes at the organization
level.35
Strategic change involves improving the alignment among an
organization’s envi-
ronment, strategy, and organization design.36 Strategic change
interventions include
efforts to improve both the organization’s relationship to its
environment and the fit
between its technical, political, and cultural systems.37 The
need for strategic change
is usually triggered by some major disruption to the
organization, such as the lifting
of regulatory requirements, a technological breakthrough, or a
new chief executive
officer coming in from outside the organization.38
One of the first applications of strategic change was Richard
Beckhard’s use of open
systems planning.39 He proposed that an organization’s
environment and its strategy
could be described and analyzed. Based on the organization’s
core mission, the differ-
ences between what the environment demanded and how the
organization responded
could be reduced and performance improved. Since then, change
agents have proposed
a variety of large-scale or strategic-change models;40 each of
these models recognizes that
strategic change involves multiple levels of the organization
and a change in its culture,
is often driven from the top by powerful executives, and has

OD Final Paper Employee Engagement Interventi.docx

OD Final Paper Employee Engagement Interventi.docx

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