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Neurosurgery Topics for
Residents
Facebook: Happy Friday Knight
Thailand
Head Injury
• Mild GCS 13-15
• Moderate GCS 9 – 12
• Severe GCS ≤ 8
• Moderate head injury: CT scan and admit
observe
• Severe head injury: CT scan and primary
survey and resuscitation
Mild Head Injury
• Low risk
• Moderate risk
• High risk
Mild Head Injury – Low Risk
• Discharge and observe at home with
instructions for head injuries
Mild Head Injury – Moderate Risk
• CT brain
• Admit or discharge
• Criteria for observation at home
– Normal CT
– Initial GCS ≥ 14
– No high risk criteria
– Neurologically intact
– Responsible adult who can observe the patient
– Easy to return to hospital
– No complicating circumstances (violence, child abuse)
Mild Head Injury – High Risk
• CT brain
• Admit
• Notify operating room to stand by
Scalp Injury
• Management:
– Debridement
– Closure by careful reapproximation of the galea
will provide a more secure closure and better
hemostasis
– Advancement flap
Skull fractures
• Closed and open
• Closed: not require specific treatment
• Open: repair scalp and operative debridement
• Indications for craniotomy:
– Depressed skull fracture greater than cranial
thickness
– ICH
– Frontal sinus involvement
• Criteria for nonsurgical management
– No evidence of dural penetration (CSF leak,
pneumocephalus)
– No significant ICH
– Depression < 1cm
– No frontal sinus involvement
– No wound infection or gross contamination
– No gross cosmetic deformity
Skull Fractures
• Base of skull fractures
– Signs: battle’s sign, raccoon eyes, CSF leakage,
hemotympanum, cranial nerve injury
– Requiring intervention:
• Cranial nerve deficit
• CSF leak
• Traumatic aneurysm
• Posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula
• Meninigitis or cerebral abscess
• Cosmetic deformity
Diffuse Axonal Injury
• Acceleration/deceleration of grey/white
matter
• Range from mild concussion to hypoxic
ischemic injuries
• CT: normal to diffusely brain swollen with loss
of gray-white distinction
• Poor outcome
Hemorrhagic Contusion
• Surgical evacuation for
– Progressive neurological deterioration
– Midline shift ≥ 5 mm or compress basal cistern
– ICH > 50 cm3
Epidural Hematoma
• Lucid interval
• CT: biconvex shape
• Indications for surgery: EDH volume > 30 cm3
regardless of GCS, GCS < 9
• Surgery: craniectomy
• Nonsurgical management criteria
– Volume < 30 cm3
– Thickness < 15 mm
– Midline shift < 5 mm
– GCS > 8
– No focal neurologic deficit
Acute Subdural Hematoma
• More lethal than EDH
• CT: crescentic
• Indications for surgery: open craniotomy
– Thickness > 10 mm
– Midline shift > 5mm
– GCS drop ≥ 2
– Asymmetric/fixed/dilated pupils
– ICP > 20 mmHg
Chronic Subdural Hematoma
• Minor symptoms of headache, confusion,
language difficulties, TIA-like symptom
• CT: hypodense
• Treatment:
– Seizure prophylaxis
– Coagulopathy correction
– Surgical evacuation: burr holes craniotomy in
• Symptomatic lesions
• Maximum thickness > 1cm
Complications of Surgical Treatment
• Seizures
• ICH
• Failure of the brain to re-expand
• Tension pneumocephalus
• Subdural empyema
Late Complications from TBI
• Posttraumatic seizures
• Communicating hydrocephalus
• Posttraumatic syndrome: headache, dizziness,
dementia
• Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism
• Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
• Alzheimer’s disease
Gunshot wound to the head
• Surgical treatment is controversial
• Patients with minimal neurologic function should
NOT be operated
• Goals of surgery
– Debridement
– Evacuation of hematoma
– Removal bone fragment
– Retrieval bullet fragment
– Obtaining hemostasis
– Watertight dural closure
Medical therapies for TBI
• IV fluids: LRS or NSS, avoid hyponatremia
• Hyperventilation: necessary for acute
neurologic deterioration while other
treatments are initiated
• Mannitol: reduce ICP
• Hypertonic saline
• Barbiturates
• anticonvulsants
Spinal Cord Injury
• Central Cord syndrome: upper > lower,
hyperextension + preexisting SCS
• Anterior cord syndrome: anterior spinal artery
problem, poorest outcome
• Brown-sequard syndrome: penetrating
trauma, ipsilateral motor loss + contralatral
pain/temperature loss
Spinal Injuries
• Cervical
• Thoracic
• Thoracolumbar
• Lumbar
• sacral
Cervical Spine Injury
• Primary survey: if neck pain or alteration of
consciousness  hard collar and CT c-spine as
adjuncts to secondary survey
• Cervical spine stability  c-spine injury is unlikely
– Alert
– No neck pain
– No neurologic deficit
– Voluntarily move side to side, flexion and extension
Cervical Spine Injury
• Atlanto-occipital dislocation
– Severe traumatic flexion and distraction
– Brainstem destruction and apnea
– Common cause of death in shaken baby syndrome
– Xray: Power’s ratio > 1
– Treatment:
• No cervical traction due to risk of neurologic
deterioration
• Halo orthosis or sandbag
Cervical Spine Injury
• Atlas (C1) fracture
– Most common is burst (Jefferson) fracture
– Common mechanism is axial loading
– Xray: open mouth
– Stability depends on ligaments (transverse
ligament)
– Treatment: depends on transverse ligament
• Intact: cervical immobilization alone
• Disrupted: cervical immobilization or surgical fixation
and fusion
Cervical Spine Injury
• C1 rotary subluxation
– Most often seen in children
– It may occurs spontaneously, after major or minor
trauma, with URI, or with rheumatoid arthritis
– Torticollis
– Best diagnosed with open mouth view
Cervical Spine Injury
• Axis (C2) fracture
– Types
• Odontoid fractures
• Hangman’s fractures
• miscellaneous
Cervical Spine Injury
• Hangman’s fractures
– Hyperextension + axial loading
– Involved posterior element of C2
– Usually stable
– 90% heal with
– immobilization only
Cervical Spine Injury
• Odontoid fracture
Cervical Spine Injury
• Odontoid fracture
– Consider surgical fixation for:
• Displacement ≥ 5 mm
• IIA fracture
• Instability to maintain alignment with external
immobilization
Cervical Spine Injury
• Subaxial (C3 through C7) fractures
– Most common fracture = C5
– Most common subluxation = C5/C6
– The incidence of neurologic injury increases with
facet dislocation
Thoracic Spine Injury (T1-T10)
• Anterior wedge compression injuries: involved anterior
2/3, stable
• Burst fractures: vertical-axial compression
• Chance fractures: transverse fracture through the
vertebral body, flexion, associated with retroperitoneal
organ injuries
• Fracture-dislocations: extreme flexion or severe blunt
trauma, disruption of posterior ligament
Thoracic Spine Injury
• Anterior wedge compression injury
– stable
– often treated with rigid brace
• Others are extremely unstable  internal
fixation
Thoracolumbar Junction Fractures
(T11 – L1)
• Due to relative immobility of thoracic spine
compared with lumbar spine
• Combination of acute hyperflexion and
rotation
• Usually unstable
• Results in bowel and bladder dysfunction
Lumbar Fractures
• Probably of complete neurologic deficit is
much less with these injuries
Sacral Fractures
• Uncommon, usually caused by shear force
• 17% in pelvic fractures
• Below S2 not essential to ambulation
• Most treated without surgery
• Surgery may be useful in
– Unstable fractures: pain control and promote
ambulation
– Decompression/reduction/fixation may improve
radicular or sphincter deficits
General Management
• Immobilization
• IV fluids
• Observe neurogenic shock
• Methylprednisolone: 30 mg/kg IV bolus, then
5.4 mg/kg for 23 hrs
Cerebrovascular Disease
• Ischemic
• hemorrhagic
Hemorrhagic Diseases
• 15% of CVA
• Causes:
– Hypertension: cause ICH
– Amyloid angiopathy
– AVMs
– Aneurysms
– Venous thrombosis
– Tumors
– Hemorrhagic conversion
Hypertensive Hemorrhages
Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Initial management
– Treat hypertension: suggest target BP = 140/90 mmHg
– Intubation if stuporous or comatose
– Maintain euglycemia and normothermia
– Optional prophylactic AED
– Correct coagulopathies
– Treat increased ICP: mannitol, furosemide
– Watch for SIADH
– Angiography is patients < 45 years
Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Considering medical management
– Minimally symptomatic lesions
– Little chance of good outcome: high ICH score,
massive hemorrhage with significant neuronal
destruction, in dominant hemisphere, poor
neurologic condition, age > 75 years
– Severe coagulopathy
– Basal ganglion or thalamic hemorrhage
Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Considering surgical management
– Marked mass effect
– Symptoms appear to be due to increased ICP or mass
effect
– Volume: 10 – 30 ml
– Persistent elevated ICP
– Rapid deterioration
– Favorable location: lobar, cerebellar, external capsule,
non-dominant
– Young (<50years)
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
• Etiologies
– Trauma: most common
– Spontaneous:
• Ruptured intracranial aneurysm (75-80%)
• AVM
• Vasculitis and vasculopathies
• Tumor
• Cerebral artery dissection
• Small superficial artery rupture
• Rupture of infundibulum
• Coagulopathy
• Dural sinus thrombosis
• Sickle cell anemia
• No cause determined
SAH
• Signs and symptoms
– Thunderclap headache: the worst headache of my
life
– Mild headache
– Nuchal rigidity
– coma
Cerebral Aneurysms
• Balloon-like outpouching
• Occurs at branch point of major vessels
• May consist of thin layer of blood in CSF space
or thick layers of blood extending to brain
parenchyma resulting in a clot with mass
effect
• Investigations: CTA and LP
Cerebral Aneurysms
• Treatment
– Intubation in comatose and stuporous patients
– Hemodynamic monitoring and stabilization
– Early aneurysmal occlusion:
• Coil aneurysm with endovascular approach
• Craniotomy with microsurgical dissection and
placement a clip across the aneurysm
Arteriovenous Malformation
• Abnormal, dilated arteries and veins without an
intervening capillary bed
• Presents with seizure, headache, bruit, focal
neurologic deficit
• Treatment
– Usually delay 3 – 4 weeks to allow brain recovery
– Options:
• Microsurgical excision
• Endovascular embolization
• Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS)
Ischemic Stroke
• 85% of stroke
• Symptoms: based on occluded vessel and
presentation of collateral vessels
– Temporary: Transient ischemic attack
– Permanent: completed stroke
• Type
– Thrombotic
– embolic
Ischemic Stroke
• Modifiable risk factors
– Hypertension
– Smoking
– Blood lipids
– Alcohol
– Antiplatelet therapy: reduce risk
Ischemic Stroke
• Thrombotic
– Most common: carotid artery at bifurcation
– Management: emergent carotid endarterectomy if
complete occlusion
• Embolic
– From AF, hypokinetic Lt ventricular wall, valvular
vegetation, artheromatous aortic arch
Ischemic Stroke
• Management
– Goals: reopen the occluded vessel and maintain
blood flow to penumbra
– Reopen: rtPA
– Hemodynamic optimization and neurologic
monitoring
– IV: NSS and normovolemia
– Keep SBP < 180 mmHg
– Significant brain swelling with herniation:
decompressive hemicraniectomy
Management of Acute Pain
สมาคมการศึกษาเรื่องความปวดแห่งประเทศไทย. แนวทางพัฒนาการระงับปวดเฉียบพลัน. กรุงเทพ, 2552
Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of
Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
สมาคมการศึกษาเรื่องความปวดแห่งประเทศไทย. แนวทางพัฒนาการระงับปวดเฉียบพลัน. กรุงเทพ, 2552
Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
• mild to moderate pain
• Dosage: 10-15 mg/kg/dose, q4-6hr, maximum
4 g/day
• Warning: liver disease
• ADR: allergy
NSAIDs
• Conventional: Ibuprofen, diclofenac, mefenamic
acid, piroxicam, naproxen
• COX 2 inhibitors: celecoxib, parecoxib
• Mechanism: inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by
inhibit cyclooxygenase
• ADRs:
– GI irritation and peptic ulcers
– Renal toxicity
– Bleeding tendency in conventional and thrombosis in
COX2 inhibitor
– Allergy and asthma
2
Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola Gallud Romero. Use
of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental practice: A review. Med. oral patol. oral
cir.bucal (Internet) vol.12 no.1 ene. 2007
Opioids
• Moderate to severe pain
• 2 groups:
– Weak opioids: codeine, tramadol
– Strong opioids: morphine, pethidine, fentanyl
สมาคมการศึกษาเรื่องความปวดแห่งประเทศไทย. แนวทางพัฒนาการระงับปวดเฉียบพลัน. กรุงเทพ, 2552
Tramadol: 50 – 100 mg po prn pain q4-6hr
maximum: 400mg/day
Opioids: Adverse Effects
• Sedation
• Pruritus
• Nausea and vomiting
• Decrease GI motility
• Urinary retention
• Respiratory depression
• Prolong QT interval in methadone
• tolerance
• Morphine antidote: naloxone 0.0001 – 0.0004
mg/kg IV q2- 3min
Local Anesthetics
• Short acting: lidocaine, prilocaine
• Long acting: bupivacaine, levobupivacaine,
ropivacaine
• Adverse effects:
– Allergy
– IV injection or overdose: dizziness, numbness
around mouth, blurred vision, unconscious,
cardiac and respiratory arrest
Other Adjuvants
• NMDA receptor antagonists: ketamine,
dextromethorphan
• Antidepressant: amitriptyline, duloxetine
• Anticonvulsant: gabapentin
• Alpha-2 agonists: clonidine, dexmedetomidine
• Steroids: dexamethasone, prednisolone
• Cannabis
• Inhalation agents: nitric oxide
Administration Routes
• Oral
• Intravenous
• Intramuscular and subcutaneous
• Topical
• Transmucosal: rectal, nasal, sublingual, pulmonary
• Epidural
• Local
• Intrathecal
• Peripheral nerve blocks
• Periarticular and intraarticular
• Wound infiltration
Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA)
• Patient self-administer of small dose of
analgesics as required
• Routes: IV, epidural
• Morphine, fentanyl, tramadol, pethidine,
hydromorphone, oxycodone, methadone
Preemptive Analgesia
• Administration of an analgesic before an acute
nociceptive stimulus more effectively
minimised dorsal horn changes associated
with central sensitisation than the same
analgesic given after the pain
• Conflicting outcomes
Non-pharmacological Therapies
• Psychological therapies
– Provision of information
– Relaxation and attention strategies
– Hypnosis
– Cognitive-behavioral therapy
• Physical therapies
– Applications of heat and cold
– Massage
– Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
– acupuncture
Postoperative Pain
• One of the most common source of pain
• Multimodal or balanced analgesia:
combinations of analgesics with different
modes of action can improve analgesia,
reduce opioid requirements (“opioid-sparing
effect”) and reduce adverse effects of opioids
in the postoperative period (Gritsenko 2014
NR).
Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of
Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
Procedure-Specific Postoperative Pain Management
• Postoperative pain management should be
related to sites and procedures
• Different surgical procedures cause different
pain states (musculoskeletal VS visceral)
• Procedures: LC, THA, colon resection,
abdominal hysterectomy, thoracotomy, breast
surgery, hemorrhoidectomy, herniorhaphy
Around the clock or prn?
• Anesthesiologists who manage perioperative
pain should use therapeutic options such as
central regional (i.e., neuraxial) opioids,
systemic opioid PCA, and peripheral regional
techniques after thoughtfully considering the
risks and benefits for the individual patient.
These modalities should be used in preference
to intramuscular opioids ordered “as needed.”
• acetaminophen should be considered as part
of a postoperative multimodal pain
management regimen
• COX-2 selective NSAIDs (COXIBs), nonselective
NSAIDs, and calcium channel -2- antagonists
(gabapentin and pregabalin) should be
considered as part of a postoperative
multimodal pain management regimen
• consultants strongly agree that, unless
contraindicated, patients should receive an
around-the-clock regimen of NSAIDs, COXIBs,
or acetaminophen
Are NSAIDS associated with bleeding risk?
(2013) NSAIDS not significantly increase
bleeding risk after pediatric tonsillectomy
(2012) s Diclofenac treatment could result in an
increased proportion of patients with
anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery
• The panel recommends oral over intravenous
(i.v.) administration of opioids for postoperative
analgesia in patients who can use the oral route
(strong recommendation, moderate quality
evidence).
• The panel recommends that clinicians avoid using
the intramuscular route for the administration of
analgesics for management of postoperative pain
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence).
• The panel recommends that i.v. patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) be used for postoperative systemic
analgesia when the parenteral route is needed
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence)
• The panel recommends that clinicians provide
appropriate monitoring of sedation, respiratory status,
and other adverse events in patients who receive
systemic opioids for postoperative analgesia
(strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
• The panel recommends that clinicians consider
giving a preoperative dose of oral celecoxib in
adult patients without contraindications
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence)
• The panel recommends that clinicians consider
use of gabapentin or pregabalin as a component
of multimodal analgesia
(strong recommendation,moderate-quality
evidence).
• The panel recommends that clinicians consider
surgical site–specific peripheral regional
anesthetic techniques in adults and children for
procedures with evidence indicating efficacy
(strong recommendation, high-quality
evidence).
Care for Unconscious and
Paraplegia Patients
โปรแกรมฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง ในระยะเฉียบพลัน
• จัดท่านอนและท่านั่งที่เหมาะสม
• พลิกตัวทุก 2 ชั่วโมง
• บริหารข้อต่อ
• ฝึกหายใจและการไอที่ถูกต้อง
• ตรวจดูผิวหนังบริเวณที่เสี่ยงต่อแผลกดทับ
• ประเมินเรื่องการกลืนและการฝึกกลืน
• ป้องกันอุบัติเหตุ
• ฝึกการถ่ายปัสสาวะ เอา foley ออกให้เร็วที่สุด
• ฝึกการขับถ่ายอุจจาระ อาจต้องสวน
• ฝึกการนั่ง
• ฝึกการออกกาลังกายข้างเตียง
• ฝึกการทากิจวัตรประจาวัน
• ฝึกการเคลื่อนไหวร่างกาย
• ฝึกยืนและเดินตามความสามารถ
• ให้ความรู้เรื่องโรค การฟื้นตัว และการดูแล
• ประเมินและฝึกเรื่องการสื่อสาร
• ฟื้นฟูด้านจิตใจของผู้ป่วยและญาติ
• ให้ความช่วยเหลือด้านสังคม
• ป้องกันการกลับเป็นซ้าโดยการควบคุมปัจจัยเสี่ยง
โปรแกรมฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง ในระยะเฉียบพลัน
การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to
severe head injury
• Low-level neurologic state
– เน้นป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนและกระตุ้นการตื่นตัว
– Sensory stimulation
– Positioning
– ROM exercise
– Treat other comorbidities
– Avoid depressants
– Nursing care
– Family education
• Confusion state
– อาจมีอาการกระสับกระส่าย โวยวาย ง่วงซึม ซึมเศร้า
– รักษา cause of confusion
– Agitation: สังเกตและปรับพฤติกรรม จัดสิ่งแวดล้อมที่เหมาะสม
หลีกเลี่ยงการมัด ให้ยา antipsychotic, TCA
– Hypoarousal: ฝึกเป็นช่วงๆ ฝึกช่วงที่ตื่นตัวที่สุด ให้ยา
psychostimulants
– Depression: ทา psychosupport, psychotherapy
ร่วมกับใช้ยา antidepressants
การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to
severe head injury
Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation
• ระยะแรกเน้นการเคลื่อนย้ายตัว การเคลื่อนที่ ทากิจวัตรประจาวัน
พฤติกรรมบาบัด
• เมื่อพ้นภาวะ posttraumatic amnesia แล้ว เน้นฝึกด้าน
สติปัญญา
• สุดท้าย ฝึกแก้ปัญหาขั้นสูง การอยู่ร่วมในสังคม และการประกอบอาชีพ
• ปรับวงจรการนอน
• หลีกเลี่ยงการใช้ยาที่กดประสาท
• กาจัดสาเหตุของอาการปวด
• กระตุ้นการรับรู้ สมาธิและฝึกความสนใจต่อสิ่งแวดล้อม
• ฝึก reorientation
• ฝึก selective attention
• ออกกาลังกายเพิ่ม range of motion, muscle strength
Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation
• ฝึกทักษะด้านการเคลื่อนย้ายตัว การเคลื่อนที่ การทากิจวัตรประจาวัน
• ฝึกการสื่อสารและการพูด
• แก้อาการเกร็ง, DVT
• Neurocognitive rehabilitation
• Behavioral rehabilitation
• ฝึกการอยู่ร่วมกับครอบครัว
Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation
การฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยบาดเจ็บไขสันหลังในระยะแรก
• 6 -8 สัปดาห์
• ป้องกันไม่ให้เกิดภาวะแทรกซ้อนต่างๆ:
– ป้องกันแผลกดทับ: พลิกตัวทุก 2 ชม
– ป้องกันภาวะข้อยึดติด: ROM exercise + จัดข้อให้อยู่ในท่าที่เหมาะสม
– ป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนทางระบบปัสสาวะ: คุมสมดุลเกลือแร่ ใส่ foley
ในช่วงแรกแล้วค่อยฝึกการขับถ่ายในระยะต่อมา
– ป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนทางระบบทางเดินอาหาร: ป้องกันสาลัก NG
decompress bowel, ป้องกัน stress ulcer, สวนถ่ายอุจจาระ
อย่างน้อยสัปดาห์ละ 1 ครั้งจนกว่าจะเริ่มฝึกขับถ่ายได้
การฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยบาดเจ็บไขสันหลังในระยะฟื้นฟู
• เน้นเป้าหมายให้ผู้ป่วยมีความสามารถสูงสุดตามแต่สภาพและกาลังจะ
เอื้ออานวย
• เป้าหมายของการฟื้นฟูจะขึ้นอยู่กับ injury level
References
สมาคมการศึกษาเรื่องความปวดแห่งประเทศไทย. แนวทางพัฒนาการระงับปวดเฉียบพลัน. กรุงเทพ, 2552
ทรงชัย สิมะโรจน์ และคณะ, บรรณาธิการ. ศัลยศาสตร์วิวัฒน์ เล่ม 51. กรุงเทพมหานคร: กรุงเทพเวชสาร, 2556.
ปวีณา บุญบูรพงศ์. วิสัญญีวิทยาขั้นต้น. กรุงเทพฯ: โรงพิมพ์แห่งจุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย, 2550.
Australian and New Zealand College of Anesthetists and Faculty of Pain
Medicine. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence 4th ed. 2015.
American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management.
Practice Guidelines for Acute Pain Management in the Perioperative Setting:
An Updated Report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on
Acute Pain Management. Anesthesiology 2012; 116:248–73
Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola
Gallud Romero. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental
practice: A review. Med. oral patol. oral cir.bucal
(Internet) vol.12 no.1 ene. 2007
Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of
Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
Lewis SR, Nicholson A, Cardwell ME, Siviter G, Smith AF. Nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in paediatric tonsillectomy
(Review). Cochrane Library. 2013 issue 7
Klein M, Gögenur I, Rosenberg J. Postoperative use of non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs in patients with anastomotic leakage requiring
reoperation after colorectal resection: cohort study based on prospective
data. BMJ. 2012;345:e1666
Brunicardi FC et al. Schwartz’s Principles of Surgery. 10th ed. McGraw-Hill
Education, 2015.
American College of Surgeons ACS Committee of Trauma. ATLS Student
Course Manual. 9th ed. Chicago: American College of Surgeons, 2012.
Greenberg MS. Handbook of Neurosurgery. 7th ed. New York: Thieme, 2010.
ดุจใจ ชัยวานิชศิริ, วสุวัฒน์ กิติสมประยูรกุล, ตาราเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู. ภาควิชาเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู คณะแพทยศาสตร์
จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย และศูนย์เวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู สภากาชาดไทย.

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Neurosurgery topics for residents

  • 1. Neurosurgery Topics for Residents Facebook: Happy Friday Knight Thailand
  • 3. • Mild GCS 13-15 • Moderate GCS 9 – 12 • Severe GCS ≤ 8
  • 4. • Moderate head injury: CT scan and admit observe • Severe head injury: CT scan and primary survey and resuscitation
  • 5. Mild Head Injury • Low risk • Moderate risk • High risk
  • 6. Mild Head Injury – Low Risk • Discharge and observe at home with instructions for head injuries
  • 7. Mild Head Injury – Moderate Risk • CT brain • Admit or discharge • Criteria for observation at home – Normal CT – Initial GCS ≥ 14 – No high risk criteria – Neurologically intact – Responsible adult who can observe the patient – Easy to return to hospital – No complicating circumstances (violence, child abuse)
  • 8. Mild Head Injury – High Risk • CT brain • Admit • Notify operating room to stand by
  • 9. Scalp Injury • Management: – Debridement – Closure by careful reapproximation of the galea will provide a more secure closure and better hemostasis – Advancement flap
  • 10. Skull fractures • Closed and open • Closed: not require specific treatment • Open: repair scalp and operative debridement • Indications for craniotomy: – Depressed skull fracture greater than cranial thickness – ICH – Frontal sinus involvement
  • 11. • Criteria for nonsurgical management – No evidence of dural penetration (CSF leak, pneumocephalus) – No significant ICH – Depression < 1cm – No frontal sinus involvement – No wound infection or gross contamination – No gross cosmetic deformity
  • 12. Skull Fractures • Base of skull fractures – Signs: battle’s sign, raccoon eyes, CSF leakage, hemotympanum, cranial nerve injury – Requiring intervention: • Cranial nerve deficit • CSF leak • Traumatic aneurysm • Posttraumatic carotid-cavernous fistula • Meninigitis or cerebral abscess • Cosmetic deformity
  • 13. Diffuse Axonal Injury • Acceleration/deceleration of grey/white matter • Range from mild concussion to hypoxic ischemic injuries • CT: normal to diffusely brain swollen with loss of gray-white distinction • Poor outcome
  • 14. Hemorrhagic Contusion • Surgical evacuation for – Progressive neurological deterioration – Midline shift ≥ 5 mm or compress basal cistern – ICH > 50 cm3
  • 15. Epidural Hematoma • Lucid interval • CT: biconvex shape • Indications for surgery: EDH volume > 30 cm3 regardless of GCS, GCS < 9 • Surgery: craniectomy • Nonsurgical management criteria – Volume < 30 cm3 – Thickness < 15 mm – Midline shift < 5 mm – GCS > 8 – No focal neurologic deficit
  • 16. Acute Subdural Hematoma • More lethal than EDH • CT: crescentic • Indications for surgery: open craniotomy – Thickness > 10 mm – Midline shift > 5mm – GCS drop ≥ 2 – Asymmetric/fixed/dilated pupils – ICP > 20 mmHg
  • 17. Chronic Subdural Hematoma • Minor symptoms of headache, confusion, language difficulties, TIA-like symptom • CT: hypodense • Treatment: – Seizure prophylaxis – Coagulopathy correction – Surgical evacuation: burr holes craniotomy in • Symptomatic lesions • Maximum thickness > 1cm
  • 18. Complications of Surgical Treatment • Seizures • ICH • Failure of the brain to re-expand • Tension pneumocephalus • Subdural empyema
  • 19. Late Complications from TBI • Posttraumatic seizures • Communicating hydrocephalus • Posttraumatic syndrome: headache, dizziness, dementia • Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism • Chronic traumatic encephalopathy • Alzheimer’s disease
  • 20. Gunshot wound to the head • Surgical treatment is controversial • Patients with minimal neurologic function should NOT be operated • Goals of surgery – Debridement – Evacuation of hematoma – Removal bone fragment – Retrieval bullet fragment – Obtaining hemostasis – Watertight dural closure
  • 21. Medical therapies for TBI • IV fluids: LRS or NSS, avoid hyponatremia • Hyperventilation: necessary for acute neurologic deterioration while other treatments are initiated • Mannitol: reduce ICP • Hypertonic saline • Barbiturates • anticonvulsants
  • 23. • Central Cord syndrome: upper > lower, hyperextension + preexisting SCS • Anterior cord syndrome: anterior spinal artery problem, poorest outcome • Brown-sequard syndrome: penetrating trauma, ipsilateral motor loss + contralatral pain/temperature loss
  • 24. Spinal Injuries • Cervical • Thoracic • Thoracolumbar • Lumbar • sacral
  • 25. Cervical Spine Injury • Primary survey: if neck pain or alteration of consciousness  hard collar and CT c-spine as adjuncts to secondary survey • Cervical spine stability  c-spine injury is unlikely – Alert – No neck pain – No neurologic deficit – Voluntarily move side to side, flexion and extension
  • 26. Cervical Spine Injury • Atlanto-occipital dislocation – Severe traumatic flexion and distraction – Brainstem destruction and apnea – Common cause of death in shaken baby syndrome – Xray: Power’s ratio > 1 – Treatment: • No cervical traction due to risk of neurologic deterioration • Halo orthosis or sandbag
  • 27. Cervical Spine Injury • Atlas (C1) fracture – Most common is burst (Jefferson) fracture – Common mechanism is axial loading – Xray: open mouth – Stability depends on ligaments (transverse ligament) – Treatment: depends on transverse ligament • Intact: cervical immobilization alone • Disrupted: cervical immobilization or surgical fixation and fusion
  • 28. Cervical Spine Injury • C1 rotary subluxation – Most often seen in children – It may occurs spontaneously, after major or minor trauma, with URI, or with rheumatoid arthritis – Torticollis – Best diagnosed with open mouth view
  • 29. Cervical Spine Injury • Axis (C2) fracture – Types • Odontoid fractures • Hangman’s fractures • miscellaneous
  • 30. Cervical Spine Injury • Hangman’s fractures – Hyperextension + axial loading – Involved posterior element of C2 – Usually stable – 90% heal with – immobilization only
  • 31. Cervical Spine Injury • Odontoid fracture
  • 32. Cervical Spine Injury • Odontoid fracture – Consider surgical fixation for: • Displacement ≥ 5 mm • IIA fracture • Instability to maintain alignment with external immobilization
  • 33. Cervical Spine Injury • Subaxial (C3 through C7) fractures – Most common fracture = C5 – Most common subluxation = C5/C6 – The incidence of neurologic injury increases with facet dislocation
  • 34. Thoracic Spine Injury (T1-T10) • Anterior wedge compression injuries: involved anterior 2/3, stable • Burst fractures: vertical-axial compression • Chance fractures: transverse fracture through the vertebral body, flexion, associated with retroperitoneal organ injuries • Fracture-dislocations: extreme flexion or severe blunt trauma, disruption of posterior ligament
  • 35. Thoracic Spine Injury • Anterior wedge compression injury – stable – often treated with rigid brace • Others are extremely unstable  internal fixation
  • 36. Thoracolumbar Junction Fractures (T11 – L1) • Due to relative immobility of thoracic spine compared with lumbar spine • Combination of acute hyperflexion and rotation • Usually unstable • Results in bowel and bladder dysfunction
  • 37. Lumbar Fractures • Probably of complete neurologic deficit is much less with these injuries
  • 38. Sacral Fractures • Uncommon, usually caused by shear force • 17% in pelvic fractures • Below S2 not essential to ambulation • Most treated without surgery • Surgery may be useful in – Unstable fractures: pain control and promote ambulation – Decompression/reduction/fixation may improve radicular or sphincter deficits
  • 39. General Management • Immobilization • IV fluids • Observe neurogenic shock • Methylprednisolone: 30 mg/kg IV bolus, then 5.4 mg/kg for 23 hrs
  • 42. Hemorrhagic Diseases • 15% of CVA • Causes: – Hypertension: cause ICH – Amyloid angiopathy – AVMs – Aneurysms – Venous thrombosis – Tumors – Hemorrhagic conversion
  • 44. Hypertensive Hemorrhages • Initial management – Treat hypertension: suggest target BP = 140/90 mmHg – Intubation if stuporous or comatose – Maintain euglycemia and normothermia – Optional prophylactic AED – Correct coagulopathies – Treat increased ICP: mannitol, furosemide – Watch for SIADH – Angiography is patients < 45 years
  • 45. Hypertensive Hemorrhages • Considering medical management – Minimally symptomatic lesions – Little chance of good outcome: high ICH score, massive hemorrhage with significant neuronal destruction, in dominant hemisphere, poor neurologic condition, age > 75 years – Severe coagulopathy – Basal ganglion or thalamic hemorrhage
  • 46. Hypertensive Hemorrhages • Considering surgical management – Marked mass effect – Symptoms appear to be due to increased ICP or mass effect – Volume: 10 – 30 ml – Persistent elevated ICP – Rapid deterioration – Favorable location: lobar, cerebellar, external capsule, non-dominant – Young (<50years)
  • 47. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage • Etiologies – Trauma: most common – Spontaneous: • Ruptured intracranial aneurysm (75-80%) • AVM • Vasculitis and vasculopathies • Tumor • Cerebral artery dissection • Small superficial artery rupture • Rupture of infundibulum • Coagulopathy • Dural sinus thrombosis • Sickle cell anemia • No cause determined
  • 48. SAH • Signs and symptoms – Thunderclap headache: the worst headache of my life – Mild headache – Nuchal rigidity – coma
  • 49.
  • 50. Cerebral Aneurysms • Balloon-like outpouching • Occurs at branch point of major vessels • May consist of thin layer of blood in CSF space or thick layers of blood extending to brain parenchyma resulting in a clot with mass effect • Investigations: CTA and LP
  • 51.
  • 52. Cerebral Aneurysms • Treatment – Intubation in comatose and stuporous patients – Hemodynamic monitoring and stabilization – Early aneurysmal occlusion: • Coil aneurysm with endovascular approach • Craniotomy with microsurgical dissection and placement a clip across the aneurysm
  • 53. Arteriovenous Malformation • Abnormal, dilated arteries and veins without an intervening capillary bed • Presents with seizure, headache, bruit, focal neurologic deficit • Treatment – Usually delay 3 – 4 weeks to allow brain recovery – Options: • Microsurgical excision • Endovascular embolization • Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS)
  • 54. Ischemic Stroke • 85% of stroke • Symptoms: based on occluded vessel and presentation of collateral vessels – Temporary: Transient ischemic attack – Permanent: completed stroke • Type – Thrombotic – embolic
  • 55. Ischemic Stroke • Modifiable risk factors – Hypertension – Smoking – Blood lipids – Alcohol – Antiplatelet therapy: reduce risk
  • 56. Ischemic Stroke • Thrombotic – Most common: carotid artery at bifurcation – Management: emergent carotid endarterectomy if complete occlusion • Embolic – From AF, hypokinetic Lt ventricular wall, valvular vegetation, artheromatous aortic arch
  • 57. Ischemic Stroke • Management – Goals: reopen the occluded vessel and maintain blood flow to penumbra – Reopen: rtPA – Hemodynamic optimization and neurologic monitoring – IV: NSS and normovolemia – Keep SBP < 180 mmHg – Significant brain swelling with herniation: decompressive hemicraniectomy
  • 60.
  • 61. Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
  • 63. Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) • mild to moderate pain • Dosage: 10-15 mg/kg/dose, q4-6hr, maximum 4 g/day • Warning: liver disease • ADR: allergy
  • 64. NSAIDs • Conventional: Ibuprofen, diclofenac, mefenamic acid, piroxicam, naproxen • COX 2 inhibitors: celecoxib, parecoxib • Mechanism: inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by inhibit cyclooxygenase • ADRs: – GI irritation and peptic ulcers – Renal toxicity – Bleeding tendency in conventional and thrombosis in COX2 inhibitor – Allergy and asthma
  • 65. 2
  • 66. Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola Gallud Romero. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental practice: A review. Med. oral patol. oral cir.bucal (Internet) vol.12 no.1 ene. 2007
  • 67. Opioids • Moderate to severe pain • 2 groups: – Weak opioids: codeine, tramadol – Strong opioids: morphine, pethidine, fentanyl
  • 69. Tramadol: 50 – 100 mg po prn pain q4-6hr maximum: 400mg/day
  • 70. Opioids: Adverse Effects • Sedation • Pruritus • Nausea and vomiting • Decrease GI motility • Urinary retention • Respiratory depression • Prolong QT interval in methadone • tolerance
  • 71. • Morphine antidote: naloxone 0.0001 – 0.0004 mg/kg IV q2- 3min
  • 72. Local Anesthetics • Short acting: lidocaine, prilocaine • Long acting: bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, ropivacaine • Adverse effects: – Allergy – IV injection or overdose: dizziness, numbness around mouth, blurred vision, unconscious, cardiac and respiratory arrest
  • 73. Other Adjuvants • NMDA receptor antagonists: ketamine, dextromethorphan • Antidepressant: amitriptyline, duloxetine • Anticonvulsant: gabapentin • Alpha-2 agonists: clonidine, dexmedetomidine • Steroids: dexamethasone, prednisolone • Cannabis • Inhalation agents: nitric oxide
  • 74. Administration Routes • Oral • Intravenous • Intramuscular and subcutaneous • Topical • Transmucosal: rectal, nasal, sublingual, pulmonary • Epidural • Local • Intrathecal • Peripheral nerve blocks • Periarticular and intraarticular • Wound infiltration
  • 75. Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA) • Patient self-administer of small dose of analgesics as required • Routes: IV, epidural • Morphine, fentanyl, tramadol, pethidine, hydromorphone, oxycodone, methadone
  • 76. Preemptive Analgesia • Administration of an analgesic before an acute nociceptive stimulus more effectively minimised dorsal horn changes associated with central sensitisation than the same analgesic given after the pain • Conflicting outcomes
  • 77. Non-pharmacological Therapies • Psychological therapies – Provision of information – Relaxation and attention strategies – Hypnosis – Cognitive-behavioral therapy • Physical therapies – Applications of heat and cold – Massage – Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) – acupuncture
  • 79. • One of the most common source of pain • Multimodal or balanced analgesia: combinations of analgesics with different modes of action can improve analgesia, reduce opioid requirements (“opioid-sparing effect”) and reduce adverse effects of opioids in the postoperative period (Gritsenko 2014 NR).
  • 80. Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
  • 81. Procedure-Specific Postoperative Pain Management • Postoperative pain management should be related to sites and procedures • Different surgical procedures cause different pain states (musculoskeletal VS visceral) • Procedures: LC, THA, colon resection, abdominal hysterectomy, thoracotomy, breast surgery, hemorrhoidectomy, herniorhaphy
  • 82. Around the clock or prn?
  • 83.
  • 84. • Anesthesiologists who manage perioperative pain should use therapeutic options such as central regional (i.e., neuraxial) opioids, systemic opioid PCA, and peripheral regional techniques after thoughtfully considering the risks and benefits for the individual patient. These modalities should be used in preference to intramuscular opioids ordered “as needed.”
  • 85. • acetaminophen should be considered as part of a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen
  • 86. • COX-2 selective NSAIDs (COXIBs), nonselective NSAIDs, and calcium channel -2- antagonists (gabapentin and pregabalin) should be considered as part of a postoperative multimodal pain management regimen • consultants strongly agree that, unless contraindicated, patients should receive an around-the-clock regimen of NSAIDs, COXIBs, or acetaminophen
  • 87. Are NSAIDS associated with bleeding risk?
  • 88. (2013) NSAIDS not significantly increase bleeding risk after pediatric tonsillectomy
  • 89. (2012) s Diclofenac treatment could result in an increased proportion of patients with anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery
  • 90. • The panel recommends oral over intravenous (i.v.) administration of opioids for postoperative analgesia in patients who can use the oral route (strong recommendation, moderate quality evidence). • The panel recommends that clinicians avoid using the intramuscular route for the administration of analgesics for management of postoperative pain (strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence).
  • 91. • The panel recommends that i.v. patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) be used for postoperative systemic analgesia when the parenteral route is needed (strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence) • The panel recommends that clinicians provide appropriate monitoring of sedation, respiratory status, and other adverse events in patients who receive systemic opioids for postoperative analgesia (strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
  • 92. • The panel recommends that clinicians consider giving a preoperative dose of oral celecoxib in adult patients without contraindications (strong recommendation, moderate-quality evidence) • The panel recommends that clinicians consider use of gabapentin or pregabalin as a component of multimodal analgesia (strong recommendation,moderate-quality evidence).
  • 93. • The panel recommends that clinicians consider surgical site–specific peripheral regional anesthetic techniques in adults and children for procedures with evidence indicating efficacy (strong recommendation, high-quality evidence).
  • 94. Care for Unconscious and Paraplegia Patients
  • 95. โปรแกรมฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง ในระยะเฉียบพลัน • จัดท่านอนและท่านั่งที่เหมาะสม • พลิกตัวทุก 2 ชั่วโมง • บริหารข้อต่อ • ฝึกหายใจและการไอที่ถูกต้อง • ตรวจดูผิวหนังบริเวณที่เสี่ยงต่อแผลกดทับ • ประเมินเรื่องการกลืนและการฝึกกลืน • ป้องกันอุบัติเหตุ • ฝึกการถ่ายปัสสาวะ เอา foley ออกให้เร็วที่สุด • ฝึกการขับถ่ายอุจจาระ อาจต้องสวน
  • 96. • ฝึกการนั่ง • ฝึกการออกกาลังกายข้างเตียง • ฝึกการทากิจวัตรประจาวัน • ฝึกการเคลื่อนไหวร่างกาย • ฝึกยืนและเดินตามความสามารถ • ให้ความรู้เรื่องโรค การฟื้นตัว และการดูแล • ประเมินและฝึกเรื่องการสื่อสาร • ฟื้นฟูด้านจิตใจของผู้ป่วยและญาติ • ให้ความช่วยเหลือด้านสังคม • ป้องกันการกลับเป็นซ้าโดยการควบคุมปัจจัยเสี่ยง โปรแกรมฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยโรคหลอดเลือดสมอง ในระยะเฉียบพลัน
  • 97. การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to severe head injury • Low-level neurologic state – เน้นป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนและกระตุ้นการตื่นตัว – Sensory stimulation – Positioning – ROM exercise – Treat other comorbidities – Avoid depressants – Nursing care – Family education
  • 98. • Confusion state – อาจมีอาการกระสับกระส่าย โวยวาย ง่วงซึม ซึมเศร้า – รักษา cause of confusion – Agitation: สังเกตและปรับพฤติกรรม จัดสิ่งแวดล้อมที่เหมาะสม หลีกเลี่ยงการมัด ให้ยา antipsychotic, TCA – Hypoarousal: ฝึกเป็นช่วงๆ ฝึกช่วงที่ตื่นตัวที่สุด ให้ยา psychostimulants – Depression: ทา psychosupport, psychotherapy ร่วมกับใช้ยา antidepressants การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to severe head injury
  • 99. Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation • ระยะแรกเน้นการเคลื่อนย้ายตัว การเคลื่อนที่ ทากิจวัตรประจาวัน พฤติกรรมบาบัด • เมื่อพ้นภาวะ posttraumatic amnesia แล้ว เน้นฝึกด้าน สติปัญญา • สุดท้าย ฝึกแก้ปัญหาขั้นสูง การอยู่ร่วมในสังคม และการประกอบอาชีพ
  • 100. • ปรับวงจรการนอน • หลีกเลี่ยงการใช้ยาที่กดประสาท • กาจัดสาเหตุของอาการปวด • กระตุ้นการรับรู้ สมาธิและฝึกความสนใจต่อสิ่งแวดล้อม • ฝึก reorientation • ฝึก selective attention • ออกกาลังกายเพิ่ม range of motion, muscle strength Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation
  • 101. • ฝึกทักษะด้านการเคลื่อนย้ายตัว การเคลื่อนที่ การทากิจวัตรประจาวัน • ฝึกการสื่อสารและการพูด • แก้อาการเกร็ง, DVT • Neurocognitive rehabilitation • Behavioral rehabilitation • ฝึกการอยู่ร่วมกับครอบครัว Intensive Inpatient Rehabilitation
  • 102. การฟื้นฟูผู้ป่วยบาดเจ็บไขสันหลังในระยะแรก • 6 -8 สัปดาห์ • ป้องกันไม่ให้เกิดภาวะแทรกซ้อนต่างๆ: – ป้องกันแผลกดทับ: พลิกตัวทุก 2 ชม – ป้องกันภาวะข้อยึดติด: ROM exercise + จัดข้อให้อยู่ในท่าที่เหมาะสม – ป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนทางระบบปัสสาวะ: คุมสมดุลเกลือแร่ ใส่ foley ในช่วงแรกแล้วค่อยฝึกการขับถ่ายในระยะต่อมา – ป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนทางระบบทางเดินอาหาร: ป้องกันสาลัก NG decompress bowel, ป้องกัน stress ulcer, สวนถ่ายอุจจาระ อย่างน้อยสัปดาห์ละ 1 ครั้งจนกว่าจะเริ่มฝึกขับถ่ายได้
  • 104. References สมาคมการศึกษาเรื่องความปวดแห่งประเทศไทย. แนวทางพัฒนาการระงับปวดเฉียบพลัน. กรุงเทพ, 2552 ทรงชัย สิมะโรจน์ และคณะ, บรรณาธิการ. ศัลยศาสตร์วิวัฒน์ เล่ม 51. กรุงเทพมหานคร: กรุงเทพเวชสาร, 2556. ปวีณา บุญบูรพงศ์. วิสัญญีวิทยาขั้นต้น. กรุงเทพฯ: โรงพิมพ์แห่งจุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย, 2550. Australian and New Zealand College of Anesthetists and Faculty of Pain Medicine. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence 4th ed. 2015. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management. Practice Guidelines for Acute Pain Management in the Perioperative Setting: An Updated Report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management. Anesthesiology 2012; 116:248–73
  • 105. Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola Gallud Romero. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental practice: A review. Med. oral patol. oral cir.bucal (Internet) vol.12 no.1 ene. 2007 Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157. Lewis SR, Nicholson A, Cardwell ME, Siviter G, Smith AF. Nonsteroidal anti- inflammatory drugs and perioperative bleeding in paediatric tonsillectomy (Review). Cochrane Library. 2013 issue 7 Klein M, Gögenur I, Rosenberg J. Postoperative use of non-steroidal anti- inflammatory drugs in patients with anastomotic leakage requiring reoperation after colorectal resection: cohort study based on prospective data. BMJ. 2012;345:e1666
  • 106. Brunicardi FC et al. Schwartz’s Principles of Surgery. 10th ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. American College of Surgeons ACS Committee of Trauma. ATLS Student Course Manual. 9th ed. Chicago: American College of Surgeons, 2012. Greenberg MS. Handbook of Neurosurgery. 7th ed. New York: Thieme, 2010. ดุจใจ ชัยวานิชศิริ, วสุวัฒน์ กิติสมประยูรกุล, ตาราเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู. ภาควิชาเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู คณะแพทยศาสตร์ จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย และศูนย์เวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู สภากาชาดไทย.