6. Mild Head Injury – Low Risk
• Discharge and observe at home with
instructions for head injuries
7. Mild Head Injury – Moderate Risk
• CT brain
• Admit or discharge
• Criteria for observation at home
– Normal CT
– Initial GCS ≥ 14
– No high risk criteria
– Neurologically intact
– Responsible adult who can observe the patient
– Easy to return to hospital
– No complicating circumstances (violence, child abuse)
8. Mild Head Injury – High Risk
• CT brain
• Admit
• Notify operating room to stand by
9. Scalp Injury
• Management:
– Debridement
– Closure by careful reapproximation of the galea
will provide a more secure closure and better
hemostasis
– Advancement flap
10. Skull fractures
• Closed and open
• Closed: not require specific treatment
• Open: repair scalp and operative debridement
• Indications for craniotomy:
– Depressed skull fracture greater than cranial
thickness
– ICH
– Frontal sinus involvement
11. • Criteria for nonsurgical management
– No evidence of dural penetration (CSF leak,
pneumocephalus)
– No significant ICH
– Depression < 1cm
– No frontal sinus involvement
– No wound infection or gross contamination
– No gross cosmetic deformity
13. Diffuse Axonal Injury
• Acceleration/deceleration of grey/white
matter
• Range from mild concussion to hypoxic
ischemic injuries
• CT: normal to diffusely brain swollen with loss
of gray-white distinction
• Poor outcome
14. Hemorrhagic Contusion
• Surgical evacuation for
– Progressive neurological deterioration
– Midline shift ≥ 5 mm or compress basal cistern
– ICH > 50 cm3
20. Gunshot wound to the head
• Surgical treatment is controversial
• Patients with minimal neurologic function should
NOT be operated
• Goals of surgery
– Debridement
– Evacuation of hematoma
– Removal bone fragment
– Retrieval bullet fragment
– Obtaining hemostasis
– Watertight dural closure
21. Medical therapies for TBI
• IV fluids: LRS or NSS, avoid hyponatremia
• Hyperventilation: necessary for acute
neurologic deterioration while other
treatments are initiated
• Mannitol: reduce ICP
• Hypertonic saline
• Barbiturates
• anticonvulsants
25. Cervical Spine Injury
• Primary survey: if neck pain or alteration of
consciousness hard collar and CT c-spine as
adjuncts to secondary survey
• Cervical spine stability c-spine injury is unlikely
– Alert
– No neck pain
– No neurologic deficit
– Voluntarily move side to side, flexion and extension
26. Cervical Spine Injury
• Atlanto-occipital dislocation
– Severe traumatic flexion and distraction
– Brainstem destruction and apnea
– Common cause of death in shaken baby syndrome
– Xray: Power’s ratio > 1
– Treatment:
• No cervical traction due to risk of neurologic
deterioration
• Halo orthosis or sandbag
27. Cervical Spine Injury
• Atlas (C1) fracture
– Most common is burst (Jefferson) fracture
– Common mechanism is axial loading
– Xray: open mouth
– Stability depends on ligaments (transverse
ligament)
– Treatment: depends on transverse ligament
• Intact: cervical immobilization alone
• Disrupted: cervical immobilization or surgical fixation
and fusion
28. Cervical Spine Injury
• C1 rotary subluxation
– Most often seen in children
– It may occurs spontaneously, after major or minor
trauma, with URI, or with rheumatoid arthritis
– Torticollis
– Best diagnosed with open mouth view
32. Cervical Spine Injury
• Odontoid fracture
– Consider surgical fixation for:
• Displacement ≥ 5 mm
• IIA fracture
• Instability to maintain alignment with external
immobilization
33. Cervical Spine Injury
• Subaxial (C3 through C7) fractures
– Most common fracture = C5
– Most common subluxation = C5/C6
– The incidence of neurologic injury increases with
facet dislocation
34. Thoracic Spine Injury (T1-T10)
• Anterior wedge compression injuries: involved anterior
2/3, stable
• Burst fractures: vertical-axial compression
• Chance fractures: transverse fracture through the
vertebral body, flexion, associated with retroperitoneal
organ injuries
• Fracture-dislocations: extreme flexion or severe blunt
trauma, disruption of posterior ligament
35. Thoracic Spine Injury
• Anterior wedge compression injury
– stable
– often treated with rigid brace
• Others are extremely unstable internal
fixation
36. Thoracolumbar Junction Fractures
(T11 – L1)
• Due to relative immobility of thoracic spine
compared with lumbar spine
• Combination of acute hyperflexion and
rotation
• Usually unstable
• Results in bowel and bladder dysfunction
38. Sacral Fractures
• Uncommon, usually caused by shear force
• 17% in pelvic fractures
• Below S2 not essential to ambulation
• Most treated without surgery
• Surgery may be useful in
– Unstable fractures: pain control and promote
ambulation
– Decompression/reduction/fixation may improve
radicular or sphincter deficits
44. Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Initial management
– Treat hypertension: suggest target BP = 140/90 mmHg
– Intubation if stuporous or comatose
– Maintain euglycemia and normothermia
– Optional prophylactic AED
– Correct coagulopathies
– Treat increased ICP: mannitol, furosemide
– Watch for SIADH
– Angiography is patients < 45 years
45. Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Considering medical management
– Minimally symptomatic lesions
– Little chance of good outcome: high ICH score,
massive hemorrhage with significant neuronal
destruction, in dominant hemisphere, poor
neurologic condition, age > 75 years
– Severe coagulopathy
– Basal ganglion or thalamic hemorrhage
46. Hypertensive Hemorrhages
• Considering surgical management
– Marked mass effect
– Symptoms appear to be due to increased ICP or mass
effect
– Volume: 10 – 30 ml
– Persistent elevated ICP
– Rapid deterioration
– Favorable location: lobar, cerebellar, external capsule,
non-dominant
– Young (<50years)
47. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
• Etiologies
– Trauma: most common
– Spontaneous:
• Ruptured intracranial aneurysm (75-80%)
• AVM
• Vasculitis and vasculopathies
• Tumor
• Cerebral artery dissection
• Small superficial artery rupture
• Rupture of infundibulum
• Coagulopathy
• Dural sinus thrombosis
• Sickle cell anemia
• No cause determined
48. SAH
• Signs and symptoms
– Thunderclap headache: the worst headache of my
life
– Mild headache
– Nuchal rigidity
– coma
49.
50. Cerebral Aneurysms
• Balloon-like outpouching
• Occurs at branch point of major vessels
• May consist of thin layer of blood in CSF space
or thick layers of blood extending to brain
parenchyma resulting in a clot with mass
effect
• Investigations: CTA and LP
51.
52. Cerebral Aneurysms
• Treatment
– Intubation in comatose and stuporous patients
– Hemodynamic monitoring and stabilization
– Early aneurysmal occlusion:
• Coil aneurysm with endovascular approach
• Craniotomy with microsurgical dissection and
placement a clip across the aneurysm
53. Arteriovenous Malformation
• Abnormal, dilated arteries and veins without an
intervening capillary bed
• Presents with seizure, headache, bruit, focal
neurologic deficit
• Treatment
– Usually delay 3 – 4 weeks to allow brain recovery
– Options:
• Microsurgical excision
• Endovascular embolization
• Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS)
54. Ischemic Stroke
• 85% of stroke
• Symptoms: based on occluded vessel and
presentation of collateral vessels
– Temporary: Transient ischemic attack
– Permanent: completed stroke
• Type
– Thrombotic
– embolic
66. Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola Gallud Romero. Use
of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental practice: A review. Med. oral patol. oral
cir.bucal (Internet) vol.12 no.1 ene. 2007
72. Local Anesthetics
• Short acting: lidocaine, prilocaine
• Long acting: bupivacaine, levobupivacaine,
ropivacaine
• Adverse effects:
– Allergy
– IV injection or overdose: dizziness, numbness
around mouth, blurred vision, unconscious,
cardiac and respiratory arrest
75. Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA)
• Patient self-administer of small dose of
analgesics as required
• Routes: IV, epidural
• Morphine, fentanyl, tramadol, pethidine,
hydromorphone, oxycodone, methadone
76. Preemptive Analgesia
• Administration of an analgesic before an acute
nociceptive stimulus more effectively
minimised dorsal horn changes associated
with central sensitisation than the same
analgesic given after the pain
• Conflicting outcomes
77. Non-pharmacological Therapies
• Psychological therapies
– Provision of information
– Relaxation and attention strategies
– Hypnosis
– Cognitive-behavioral therapy
• Physical therapies
– Applications of heat and cold
– Massage
– Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
– acupuncture
79. • One of the most common source of pain
• Multimodal or balanced analgesia:
combinations of analgesics with different
modes of action can improve analgesia,
reduce opioid requirements (“opioid-sparing
effect”) and reduce adverse effects of opioids
in the postoperative period (Gritsenko 2014
NR).
80. Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of
Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
81. Procedure-Specific Postoperative Pain Management
• Postoperative pain management should be
related to sites and procedures
• Different surgical procedures cause different
pain states (musculoskeletal VS visceral)
• Procedures: LC, THA, colon resection,
abdominal hysterectomy, thoracotomy, breast
surgery, hemorrhoidectomy, herniorhaphy
84. • Anesthesiologists who manage perioperative
pain should use therapeutic options such as
central regional (i.e., neuraxial) opioids,
systemic opioid PCA, and peripheral regional
techniques after thoughtfully considering the
risks and benefits for the individual patient.
These modalities should be used in preference
to intramuscular opioids ordered “as needed.”
85. • acetaminophen should be considered as part
of a postoperative multimodal pain
management regimen
86. • COX-2 selective NSAIDs (COXIBs), nonselective
NSAIDs, and calcium channel -2- antagonists
(gabapentin and pregabalin) should be
considered as part of a postoperative
multimodal pain management regimen
• consultants strongly agree that, unless
contraindicated, patients should receive an
around-the-clock regimen of NSAIDs, COXIBs,
or acetaminophen
88. (2013) NSAIDS not significantly increase
bleeding risk after pediatric tonsillectomy
89. (2012) s Diclofenac treatment could result in an
increased proportion of patients with
anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery
90. • The panel recommends oral over intravenous
(i.v.) administration of opioids for postoperative
analgesia in patients who can use the oral route
(strong recommendation, moderate quality
evidence).
• The panel recommends that clinicians avoid using
the intramuscular route for the administration of
analgesics for management of postoperative pain
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence).
91. • The panel recommends that i.v. patient-controlled
analgesia (PCA) be used for postoperative systemic
analgesia when the parenteral route is needed
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence)
• The panel recommends that clinicians provide
appropriate monitoring of sedation, respiratory status,
and other adverse events in patients who receive
systemic opioids for postoperative analgesia
(strong recommendation, low-quality evidence).
92. • The panel recommends that clinicians consider
giving a preoperative dose of oral celecoxib in
adult patients without contraindications
(strong recommendation, moderate-quality
evidence)
• The panel recommends that clinicians consider
use of gabapentin or pregabalin as a component
of multimodal analgesia
(strong recommendation,moderate-quality
evidence).
93. • The panel recommends that clinicians consider
surgical site–specific peripheral regional
anesthetic techniques in adults and children for
procedures with evidence indicating efficacy
(strong recommendation, high-quality
evidence).
97. การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to
severe head injury
• Low-level neurologic state
– เน้นป้องกันภาวะแทรกซ้อนและกระตุ้นการตื่นตัว
– Sensory stimulation
– Positioning
– ROM exercise
– Treat other comorbidities
– Avoid depressants
– Nursing care
– Family education
98. • Confusion state
– อาจมีอาการกระสับกระส่าย โวยวาย ง่วงซึม ซึมเศร้า
– รักษา cause of confusion
– Agitation: สังเกตและปรับพฤติกรรม จัดสิ่งแวดล้อมที่เหมาะสม
หลีกเลี่ยงการมัด ให้ยา antipsychotic, TCA
– Hypoarousal: ฝึกเป็นช่วงๆ ฝึกช่วงที่ตื่นตัวที่สุด ให้ยา
psychostimulants
– Depression: ทา psychosupport, psychotherapy
ร่วมกับใช้ยา antidepressants
การฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพในผู้ป่วย moderate to
severe head injury
104. References
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105. Rafael Poveda Roda 1, José Vicente Bagán2, Yolanda Jiménez Soriano1, Lola
Gallud Romero. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in dental
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Chou R et al. Guidelines on management of postoperative pain. The Journal of
Pain. 2016:17(2);131-157.
Lewis SR, Nicholson A, Cardwell ME, Siviter G, Smith AF. Nonsteroidal anti-
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ดุจใจ ชัยวานิชศิริ, วสุวัฒน์ กิติสมประยูรกุล, ตาราเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู. ภาควิชาเวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู คณะแพทยศาสตร์
จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย และศูนย์เวชศาสตร์ฟื้นฟู สภากาชาดไทย.