The document discusses Python programming fundamentals including classes, objects, loops, strings, and conditional statements. It introduces Python classes and how to define and instantiate classes. It also covers built-in functions, number types, strings, accessing string characters, string formatting, conditional statements like if/else, and for/while loops. Various examples are provided to demonstrate class creation, string manipulation, and looping constructs in Python.

1. Module 1
Programming Fundamentals
1
22MCSIT201 – Python Programming
Master of Science in Computer Science & Information Technology
[MSc-CSIT]

2. Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals
• Python is an object-oriented programming language created by Guido
Rossum in 1989.
• It is ideally designed for rapid prototyping of complex applications.
• Many large companies use the Python programming language include
NASA, Google, YouTube, BitTorrent, etc.
• Python programming is widely used in Artificial Intelligence, Natural
Language Generation, Neural Networks and other advanced fields of
Computer Science.
• Python had deep focus on code readability & this class will teach you
python from basics.
Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 2
Introduction

3. • A class is a virtual entity and can be seen as a blueprint of an
object.
Ex:
• Suppose a class is a prototype of a building. A building
contains all the details about the floor, doors, windows, etc. we
can make as many buildings as we want, based on these
details. Hence, the building can be seen as a class, and we can
create as many objects of this class.
• On the other hand, the object is the instance of a class. The
process of creating an object can be called as instantiation.
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Class & Object
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

4. • A class can be created by using the keyword class followed by
the class name.
Syntax
class ClassName:
#statement_suite
• We must notice that each class is associated with a
documentation string which can be accessed by using <class-
name>.__doc__.
• A class contains a statement suite including fields, constructor,
function, etc. definition.
• Consider the following example to create a class Employee
which contains two fields as Employee id, and name.
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Creating classes
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

5. • The class also contains a function display() which is used to
display the information of the Employee.
Example
class Employee:
id = 10;
name = "ayush"
def display (self):
print(self.id,self.name)
Here, the self is used as a reference variable which refers to the
current class object. It is always the first argument in the function
definition. However, using self is optional in the function call.
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Creating classes
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

6. • A class needs to be instantiated if we want to use the class
attributes in another class or method.
• A class can be instantiated by calling the class using the class
name.
• The syntax to create the instance of the class is given below.
<object-name> = <class-name>(<arguments>)
• The following example creates the instance of the class
Employee defined in the above example.
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Instance of the class
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

7. class MyClass:
variable = "blah"
def function(self):
print("This is a message inside the class.")
myobjectx = MyClass()
myobjecty = MyClass()
myobjecty.variable = "yackity"
# Then print out both values
print(myobjectx.variable)
print(myobjecty.variable)
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Instance of the class
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

8. class MyClass:
variable = "blah"
id = 10
def function(self):
print("This is a message inside the class.")
print("ID: %d nName: %s"%(self.id,self.variable))
myobjectx = MyClass()
myobjectx.function()
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Accessing Object Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

9. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 9
Built-in Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

10. abs() Function
• The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number.
all() Function
• The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary,
etc.). It returns true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it
returns False.
bin() Function
• The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a
specified integer.
compile() Function
• The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a
code object which can later be executed by exec() function.
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Built-in Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

11. format() Function
• The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the
given value.
object()
• The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes
and holds the built-in properties and methods which are default for all the
classes.
slice() Function
• Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection
of elements.
tuple() Function
• The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.
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Built-in Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

12. • Number data types store numeric values.
• They are immutable data types, means that changing the value
of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.
• Number objects are created when you assign a value to them.
For example −
– var1 = 1
– var2 = 10
• You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using
the del statement. For example −
– del var
– del var_a, var_b
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Numbers
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

13. int long float complex
10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j
100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j
-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j
080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEL 32.3+e18 .876j
-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J
-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J
0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j
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Numbers
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

14. • Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed
types to a common type for evaluation.
• But sometimes, you need to coerce a number explicitly from one type to
another to satisfy the requirements of an operator or function parameter.
• Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer.
• Type long(x) to convert x to a long integer.
• Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number.
• Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and
imaginary part zero.
• Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part
x and imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions
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Number Type Conversion
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

15. • A string is a sequence of one or more characters (letters,
numbers, symbols) that can be either a constant or a variable.
• Strings exist within either single quotes ' or double quotes " in
Python, so to create a string, enclose a sequence of characters
in quotes:
'This is a string in single quotes.'
"This is a string in double quotes.“
• You can choose to use either single quotes or double quotes,
but whichever you decide on you should be consistent within a
program.
•
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Strings
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

16. • The simple program “Hello, World!” demonstrates how a string can be
used in computer programming, as the characters that make up the
phrase Hello, World! are a string.
print("Hello, World!")
• As with other data types, we can store strings in variables:
hw = "Hello, World!"
• And print out the string by calling the variable:
print(hw)
Ouput
Hello, World!
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Strings
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

17. • Strings can be created by enclosing characters inside a single
quote or double quotes.
• Even triple quotes can be used in Python but generally used to
represent multiline strings and docstrings.
# all of the following are equivalent
my_string = 'Hello'
print(my_string)
my_string = "Hello"
print(my_string)
my_string = '''Hello'''
print(my_string)
# triple quotes string can extend multiple lines
my_string = """Hello, welcome to
the world of Python"""
print(my_string)
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Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

18. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 18
access characters in a string
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals
• We can access individual characters using indexing and a range of
characters using slicing.
• Index starts from 0.
• Trying to access a character out of index range will raise an IndexError.
• The index must be an integer. We can't use float or other types, this will
result into TypeError.
• Python allows negative indexing for its sequences.
• The index of -1 refers to the last item, -2 to the second last item and so on.
• We can access a range of items in a string by using the slicing operator
(colon ).

19. • str = 'programiz'
• print('str = ', str)
•
• #first character
• print('str[0] = ', str[0])
•
• #last character
• print('str[-1] = ', str[-1])
•
• #slicing 2nd to 5th character
• print('str[1:5] = ', str[1:5])
•
• #slicing 6th to 2nd last character
• print('str[5:-2] = ', str[5:-2])).
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access characters in a string
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

20. • Joining of two or more strings into a single one is called concatenation.
• The + operator does this in Python. Simply writing two string literals
together also concatenates them.
• The * operator can be used to repeat the string for a given number of times.
str1 = 'Hello‘
str2 ='World!‘
# using +
print('str1 + str2 = ', str1 + str2)
# using *
print('str1 * 3 =', str1 * 3)
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Concatenation of Two or More Strings
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

21. • Various built-in functions that work with sequence, works with
string as well.
• Some of the commonly used ones are enumerate() and len().
• The enumerate() function returns an enumerate object.
• It contains the index and value of all the items in the string as
pairs. This can be useful for iteration.
• Similarly, len() returns the length (number of characters) of the
string.
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Built-in functions to Work
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

22. str = 'cold‘
# enumerate()
list_enumerate = list(enumerate(str))
print('list(enumerate(str) = ', list_enumerate)
#character count
print('len(str) = ', len(str))
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Built-in functions to Work
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

23. Escape Sequence
• If we want to print a text like -He said, "What's there?"- we
can neither use single quote or double quotes.
• This will result into SyntaxError as the text itself contains both
single and double quotes.
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String Formatting
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals
One way to get
around this problem
is to use triple quotes.
Alternatively, we can
use escape
sequences.

24. • An escape sequence starts with a backslash and is interpreted
differently.
• If we use single quote to represent a string, all the single
quotes inside the string must be escaped.
• Similar is the case with double quotes.
• Here is how it can be done to represent the above text.
# using triple quotes
print('''He said, "What's there?"''')
# escaping single quotes
print('He said, "What's there?"')
# escaping double quotes
print("He said, "What's there?"")
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String Formatting
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

25. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 25
Escape Sequence in Python
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

26. • Sometimes we may wish to ignore the escape sequences inside
a string.
• To do this we can place r or R in front of the string.
• This will imply that it is a raw string and any escape sequence
inside it will be ignored.
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Raw String to ignore escape sequence
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

27. • The format() method that is available with the string object is
very versatile and powerful in formatting strings.
• Format strings contains curly braces {} as placeholders or
replacement fields which gets replaced.
• We can use positional arguments or keyword arguments to
specify the order.
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format() Method for Formatting
Strings
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

28. # default(implicit) order
default_order = "{}, {} and {}".format('John','Bill','Sean')
print('n--- Default Order ---')
print(default_order)
# order using positional argument
positional_order = "{1}, {0} and {2}".format('John','Bill','Sean')
print('n--- Positional Order ---')
print(positional_order)
# order using keyword argument
keyword_order = "{s}, {b} and {j}".format(j='John',b='Bill',s='Sean')
print('n--- Keyword Order ---')
print(keyword_order)
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format() Method for Formatting
Strings
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

29. if condition1:
code_block1
elif condition2:
code_block2
else:
code_block3
num = 42
if num == 42: # condition
print("number is 42") # direction
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If condition
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

30. num = 43
if num == 42:
print("number is 42")
else:
print("number if not 42“)
num = 44
if num == 42:
print("number is 42")
elif num == 44:
print("num is 44")
else:
print("num is neither 42 nor 44")
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If condition
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

31. Working on items of the iterable
• If you want to run an operation on a collection of items, then
you can do it using for loops.
• The skeleton for using the for loop is shown below.
• Note that the for statement line will end with a colon : and the
rest of the code block must be indented with a spacing of 4
spaces.
• An iterable is any object that can be looped on such as list,
tuple, string etc.
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Loops
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

32. >>> fruits = ["apples", "oranges", "mangoes"]
>>> for fruit in fruits:
... print(fruit)
apples
oranges
mangoes
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Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

33. • In the previous section, index or the place value of the item in
the iterable was not considered.
• However, if you are interested in working with the index, then
you can call the enumerate function which returns a tuple of
the index and the item.
• Taking the example above, you can print the name of the fruit
and the index of the list of fruits.
fruits = ["apples", "oranges", "mangoes"]
>>> for index, fruit in enumerate(fruits):
print("index is %s" % index)
print("fruit is %s" % fruit)
print("###########################")
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Looping on both indexes and items
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

34. • The while statement will execute a block of code as long as the
condition is true.
• The skeleton of a while block is shown below.
while condition:
code_block
• Note that similar to the for loop, the while statement ends with
a colon : and the remaining code block is indented by 4 spaces.
• We can implement the fruit example in the while block as well,
although the logic becomes a bit complicated than the for
block.
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While statement
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

35. >>> fruits = ["apples", "oranges", "mangoes"] # get the list
>>> length = len(fruits) # get the length that will be needed for
the while condition
>>> i = 0 # initialise a counter
>>> while i < length: # give the condition
... print(fruits[i]) # the code block
... i += 1 # increment the counter
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Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

36. • You can have one or more nested for loops. For example, look
at the following example where you can print the
multiplication table.
• The table is shown only for 1 and 2 to save space. You can try
for the remaining digits.
>>> for i in range(1,3):
for j in range(1,3):
print('%d x %d = %d' % (i, j, i*j))
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Nested for loops
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

37. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 37
String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

38. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 38
String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

39. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 39
String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

40. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 40
String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

41. len(string)
• len or length function is used to find the character length of any string.
• len returns a number and it takes a string as an argument.
For Example,
>>> s = "Hello"
>>> len(s)
string_name.lower()
• lower() function is used to convert all the uppercase characters present in a
string into lowercase.
• It takes a string as the function input, however the string is not passed as
argument. This function returns a string as well.
>>> print "Hello, World".lower()
hello, world
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

42. find(subString)
• In case you want to find the position of any character or of a subString
within any given string, you can use the find function.
• To find a subString in a string, we will have to provide both the main string
and the subString to be found, to the function. For Example,
>>> s = "Hello"
>>> ss = "He"
>>> print s.find(ss)
0
• Since, He is present at the beginning of the string Hello, hence index 0 is
returned as the result. It can be directly implemented/used as follows(in
case you hate useless typing; which every programmer do):
>>> print "Hello".find("He")
0
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

43. string_name.upper()
• upper() is used to turn all the characters in a string to uppercase.
>>> print "Hello, World".upper()
HELLO, WORLD
string_name.islower()
• islower() is used to check if string_name string is in lowercase or not.
• This functions returns a boolean value as result, either True or False.
>>> print "hello, world".islower()
True
>>> print "Hello, World".islower()
False
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

44. string_name.isupper()
• isupper() is used to check if the given string is in uppercase or not.
• This function also returns a boolean value as result, either True or False.
>>> print "HELLO, WORLD".isupper()
True
>>> print "Hello, World".isupper()
False
string_name.replace(old_string, new_string)
• replace() function will first of all take a string as input, and ask for some
subString within it as the first argument and ask for another string to
replace that subString as the second argument. For Example,
>>> print "Hello, World".replace("World", "India")
Hello, India
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

45. string_name.split(character, integer)
• Suppose you're having a string say,
>>> mystring = "Hello World! Welcome to the Python tutorial“
• Now we can use the split() function to split the above declared string.
• If we choose to split the string into two substring from the exclamation
mark !. We can do that by putting an exclamation mark ! in the character
argument.
• It will basically split the string into different parts depending upon the
number of exclamation marks ! in the string.
• All the sub-pieces of the string will be stored in a list. Like,
>>> print(mystring.split("!"))
['Hello World', ' Welcome to the Python tutorial']
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

46. • You can store these values to another variable and access each element of it
like this:
>>> myNEWstring = mystring.split("!")
>>> print myNEWstring[0]
>>> print myNEWstring[1]
Hello World
Welcome to the Python tutorial
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

47. • Python String join() function - returns a string that is the concatenation of
the strings in iterable with string object as a delimiter.
• Python String join() function syntax is:
str_object.join(iterable)
• The iterable elements must be a string, otherwise TypeError will be raised.
• The separator between elements is the string providing this method.
• The string object can have multiple characters too.
•
• s = 'abc'
• s1 = s.join('xyz')
• print(s1)
• Output: xabcyabcz
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

48. Trim String
• strip(): returns a new string after removing any leading and trailing
whitespaces including tabs (t).
• rstrip(): returns a new string with trailing whitespace removed. It’s easier
to remember as removing white spaces from “right” side of the string.
• lstrip(): returns a new string with leading whitespace removed, or
removing whitespaces from the “left” side of the string.
• All of these methods don’t accept any arguments to remove whitespaces. If
a character argument is provided, then they will remove that characters
from the string from leading and trailing places.
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String Functions
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

49. • s1 = ' abc '
• print(f'String ='{s1}'')
• print(f'After Removing Leading Whitespaces String ='{s1.lstrip()}'')
• print(f'After Removing Trailing Whitespaces String ='{s1.rstrip()}'')
• print(f'After Trimming Whitespaces String ='{s1.strip()}'')
Output:
• String =' abc '
• After Removing Leading Whitespaces String ='abc '
• After Removing Trailing Whitespaces String =' abc'
• After Trimming Whitespaces String ='abc'
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String Functions
Unit 1
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Fundamentals

50. • A Functions in Python are used to utilize the code in more than
one place in a program, sometimes also called method or
procedures.
• Python provides you many inbuilt functions like print(), but it
also gives freedom to create your own functions.
How to define and call a function in Python
• Function in Python is defined by the "def " statement
followed by the function name and parentheses ( () )
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Function
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

51. • Let us define a function by using the command " def func1():" and call the
function. The output of the function will be "I am learning Python
function".
•
• The function print func1() calls our def func1(): and print the command " I
am learning Python function None."
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Function
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

52. • There are set of rules in Python to define a function.
• Any args or input parameters should be placed within these parentheses
• The function first statement can be an optional statement- docstring or the
documentation string of the function
• The code within every function starts with a colon (:) and should be
indented (space)
• The statement return (expression) exits a function, optionally passing back
a value to the caller. A return statement with no args is the same as return
None.
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Function
Unit 1
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Fundamentals

53. • Python functions don't have any explicit begin or end like curly braces to
indicate the start and stop for the function, they have to rely on indentation.
• Here we take a simple example with "print" command. When we write
"print" function right below the def func 1 (): It will show an "indentation
error: expected an indented block".
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Significance of Indentation (Space) in Python
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54. • Now, when you add the indent (space) in front of "print" function, it should
print as expected.
• At least, one indent is enough to make your code work successfully. But as
a best practice it is advisable to leave about 3-4 indent to call your function.
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Significance of Indentation (Space) in Python
Unit 1
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Fundamentals

55. • It is also necessary that while declaring indentation, you have to maintain
the same indent for the rest of your code.
• For example, in below screen shot when we call another statement "still in
func1" and when it is not declared right below the first print statement it
will show an indentation error "unindent does not match any other
indentation level.“
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Significance of Indentation (Space) in Python
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

56. • Now, when we apply same indentation for both the statements
and align them in the same line, it gives the expected output.
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Significance of Indentation (Space) in Python
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

57. • Return command in Python specifies what value to give back to the caller
of the function.
• Let's understand this with the following example
• Step 1) Here - we see when function is not "return". For example, we want
the square of 4, and it should give answer "16" when the code is executed.
Which it gives when we simply use "print x*x" code, but when you call
function "print square" it gives "None" as an output.
• This is because when you call the function, recursion does not happen and
fall off the end of the function. Python returns "None" for failing off the
end of the function.
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How Function Return Value?
Unit 1
Programming
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58. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 58
How Function Return Value?
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

59. Step 2) To make this clearer we replace the print command with
assignment command. Let's check the output.
When you run the command "print square (4)" it actually returns
the value of the object since we don't have any specific function
to run over here it returns "None".
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How Function Return Value?
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

60. Step 3) Now, here we will see how to retrieve the output using "return"
command. When you use the "return" function and execute the code, it will
give the output "16."
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How Function Return Value?
Unit 1
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Fundamentals

61. • Step 4) Functions in Python are themselves an object, and an object has
some value. We will here see how Python treats an object. When you run
the command "print square" it returns the value of the object.
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How Function Return Value?
Unit 1
Programming
Fundamentals

62. • The argument is a value that is passed to the function when it's called.
• In other words on the calling side, it is an argument and on the function
side it is a parameter.
• Let see how Python Args works -
Step 1) Arguments are declared in the function definition. While calling the
function, you can pass the values for that args as shown below
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63. • Step 2) To declare a default value of an argument, assign it a value at
function definition.
• Example: x has no default values. Default values of y=0. When we supply
only one argument while calling multiply function, Python assigns the
supplied value to x while keeping the value of y=0. Hence the multiply of
x*y=0
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64. • Step 3) This time we will change the value to y=2 instead of
the default value y=0, and it will return the output as (4x2)=8.
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65. Step 4) You can also change the order in which the arguments can be passed in
Python. Here we have reversed the order of the value x and y to x=4 and y=2.
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66. Step 5) Multiple Arguments can also be passed as an array. Here in the
example we call the multiple args (1,2,3,4,5) by calling the (*args) function.
Example: We declared multiple args as number (1,2,3,4,5) when we call the
(*args) function; it prints out the output as (1,2,3,4,5)
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67. Raghavendra R Assistant Professor School of CS & IT 67
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