3. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe&&&&&iii&
Table(of(Contents(
&
Abstract& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&ii&
&
Table&of&Contents&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&& & &&&iii&
&
List&of&Figures& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&& & &&&iv&
&
Acknowledgments& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&v&
&
I.& & Introduction& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&1&
A.& Defining#Terrorism& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&1&
B.& The#Culture#of#the#First#Amendment&& & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&2&
C.& A#History#of#Activism&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&3&
&
II.& & Review&of&the&Literature&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&5&
A.& Potential#Legislative#Violations#of#Civil#Liberties& & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&5&
B.& Response#of#the#Courts& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&8&
C.& Security#versus#Liberty& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &&&&& & &&&&9&
D.& Public#Opinion& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &10&
E.& Debate#Rages#On& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &11&
#
III.&& Methodology& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &13&
&
IV.&& Key&Findings& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &15&
& A.& Government#Responsibility& & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &16&
& B.& Primary#Concern& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &20&
& C.& Likelihood#of#Success&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &24&
& D.& Sacrificing#Free#Speech# # & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &28&
& E.& The#Patriot#Act& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &32&
& F.& CounterMTerrorism#and#Civil#Liberties#Curriculum& & & & & & & & && & &36&
&
V.& & Conclusions& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &38&
A.& Major#Takeaways&& & & & & & & & & & & && & && & & & & &38&
B.& Opportunities#for#Future#Research& & & & & & & & & & & & & & &38&
&
References& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &39&
&
Appendices& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &42&
A.& Survey&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &42&
B.& Disclosure#Statement&& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & && && &45&
&
&
&
(
(
4. A.#Greenman&&&&&iv#
List(of(Figures(
(
1.1&& Government&Responsibility&Overall&& & & & & & & & & & & && & &17&
1.2&& Government&Responsibility&by&Gender&& & & & & & & & & & && & &17&
1.3&& Government&Responsibility&by&Age&Group& & & & & & & & & & && & &18&
1.4&& Government&Responsibility&by&Race/Ethnicity& & & & & & & & && & &18&
1.5&& Government&Responsibility&by&Political&Affiliation& & & & & & & && & &19&
1.6&& Government&Responsibility&by&Household&Income& & & & & & & && & &19&
2.1&& Primary&Concern&Overall& & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &21&
2.2&& Primary&Concern&by&Gender&& & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &21&
2.3&& Primary&Concern&by&Age&Group&& & & & & & & & & & & & && & &22&
2.4&& Primary&Concern&by&Race/Ethnicity& & & & & & & & & & & && & &22&
2.5&& Primary&Concern&by&Political&Affiliation& & & & & & & & & && && & &23&
2.6&& Primary&Concern&by&Household&Income& & & & & & & & & && && &&& &23&
3.1&& Likelihood&of&Success&Overall& & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &25&
3.2&& Likelihood&of&Success&by&Gender& & & & & & & & & & & & & & &25&
3.3&& Likelihood&of&Success&by&Age&Group& & & & & & & & & & & && & &26&
3.4&& Likelihood&of&Success&by&Race/Ethnicity& & & & & & & & & & && & &26&
3.5&& Likelihood&of&Success&by&Political&Affiliation& & & & & & & & & && & &27&
3.6&& Likelihood&of&Success&by&Household&Income& & & & & & & & & && & &27&
4.1&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&Overall&& & & & & & & & & & & & && & &29&
4.2&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&by&Gender& & & & & & & & & & & & && & &29&
4.3&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&by&Age&Group& & & & & & & & & & & && & &30&
4.4&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&by&Race/Ethnicity&& & & & & & & & & && & &30&
4.5&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&by&Political&Affiliation&& & & & & & & & & & &31&
4.6&& Sacrificing&Free&Speech&by&Household&Income&& & & & & & & & && & &31&
5.1&& The&Patriot&Act&Overall& & & & & & & & & & & && & & & && & &33&
5.2&& The&Patriot&Act&by&Gender& & & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &33&
5.3&& The&Patriot&Act&by&Age&Group& & & & & & & & & & & & & && & &34&
5.4&& The&Patriot&Act&by&Race/Ethnicity& & & & & & & & & & & & && & &34&
5.5&& The&Patriot&Act&by&Political&Affiliation& & & & & & & & & & & && & &35&
5.6&& The&Patriot&Act&by&Household&Income& & & & & & & & & & & && & &35&
6.1&& CounterBTerrorism&Curriculum&Overall& & & & & & & & & & && & &37&
7.1&& Civil&Liberties&Curriculum&Overall& & & & & & & & & & & & && & &37&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
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&
6. A.#Greenman!!!!!1!
I.# Introduction!
!
The!Oklahoma!City!bombings!and!the!attacks!of!September!11!made!the!threat!of!terrorism!
all!the!more!real!for!the!United!States!(U.S.).!These!two!incidents!are!not!the!only!terrorist!
acts!that!have!been!committed!on!American!soil.!The!National!Consortium!for!the!Study!of!
Terrorism!and!Responses!to!Terrorism!(START)!identified!523!terrorist!acts!between!1990!
and!2005!and!another!100!between!2006!and!2013!(2013b).!However,!the!Oklahoma!City!
and!September!11!attacks!were!the!worst!and!most!memorable.!The!1995!bombing!of!the!
Alfred!P.!Murrah!Federal!Building!in!Oklahoma!killed!168!and!injured!nearly!700!CNN!
Library,!2014,!para.!4).!Then!on!September!11,!2001,!19!AlUQaeda!members!hijacked!four!
commercial!flights!resulting!in!the!deaths!of!2,977!people!(para.!6).!
The!September!11!attacks!made!many!Americans!question!their!safety.!And!since!it!is!
generally!accepted!that!the!government!is!responsible!for!protecting!its!citizens,!the!event!
prompted!a!public!outcry!for!the!federal!government!to!take!steps!to!better!protect!
Americans!from!a!growing!threat!of!terrorism.!Meanwhile!there!has!throughout!U.S.!
history!been!a!tendency!to!protect!civil!liberties!including!freedom!of!speech!regardless!of!
the!costs.!It!is!the!intersection!of!these!two!oftenUconflicting!interests!that!is!the!arena!of!
this!study.!
!
!
A.! Defining#Terrorism!
!
The!precise!definition!of!terrorism!and!what!constitutes!a!terrorist!act!has!been!debated!
among!scholars!for!decades.!Countries!across!the!world!are!endeavoring!to!enact!
legislation!that!keeps!their!population!safe!from!terrorism!by!first!defining!and!then!
criminalizing!these!heinous!acts!and!the!behaviors!that!commonly!accompany!them!
(Golder!&!Williams,!2004,!p.!270;!Golder!&!Williams,!2006,!p.!46U47;!Head,!2002,!p.!669;!
Smit,!2005,!p.!148U150).!For!instance,!the!U.S.!Code!provides!the!following!definition!of!
terrorism:!“The!term!terrorism!means!premeditated,!politically!motivated!violence!
perpetrated!against!noncombatant!targets!by!subnational!groups!or!clandestine!agents”!
(22!U.S.C.!§!2656f).!The!definitions!provided!in!statutes!such!as!the!U.S.!Code!and!by!
international!organizations!such!as!the!United!Nations!vary!slightly!but!they!all!have!
similar!elements.!Professors!Ben!Golder!and!George!Williams!articulate!this!concept!in!the!
following!statement:!“These!definitions!…!at!their!core!all!refer!to!political,!religious!or!
ideologicallyUmotivated!violence!that!causes!harm!to!people!or!property,!and!which!is!
intended!either!to!coerce!a!civilian!population!or!government!or!to!instill!fear!in!the!
population”!(2006,!p.!46).!
Since!there!is!not!a!single,!universally!accepted!definition!of!terrorism,!this!research!is!
based!on!the!definition!provided!by!START.!Their!definition!is!"the!threatened!or!actual!use!
of!illegal!force!and!violence!by!a!nonUstate!actor!to!attain!a!political,!economic,!religious,!or!
social!goal!through!fear,!coercion,!or!intimidation"!(2013a).!While!broad,!this!definition!
includes!all!of!the!elements!identified!by!Golder!and!Williams.!It!works!for!this!paper!
because!it!does!not!look!at!what!specific!acts!qualify!as!terrorism!but!rather!at!the!
intersection!between!U.S.!counterUterrorism!policy!and!the!infringement!of!free!speech!
rights.!
!
7. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!2!
B.! The#Culture#of#the#First#Amendment!
!
The!First!Amendment!of!the!U.S.!Constitution!says:!“Congress!shall!make!no!law!…!
abridging!the!freedom!of!speech,!or!of!the!press.”1!However,!a!number!of!decisive!Supreme!
Court!cases!make!it!clear!that!these!rights!are!not!without!limits.!For!example,!in!Schenck#v.#
United#States!(1919),!the!Supreme!Court!upheld!Charles!Schenck’s!conviction!under!the!
1917!Espionage#Act!for!passing!out!flyers!to!servicemen!that!argued!that!the!draft!was!
unconstitutional.!Justice!Oliver!Holmes,!Jr.!said:!“[I]n!ordinary!times,!the!defendants!...!
would!have!been!within!their!constitutional!rights.!But!the!character!of!every!act!depends!
upon!the!circumstances!in!which!it!is!done.!...!The!most!stringent!protection!of!free!speech!
would!not!protect!a!man!in!falsely!shouting!fire!in!a!theatre!and!causing!a!panic.”!In!other!
words,!because!the!U.S.!is!at!war,!Schenck’s!actions!pose!a!“clear!and!present!danger”!to!
U.S.!efforts!and!thus!cannot!be!protected.!
In!another!significant!case,!Dennis#v.#United#States!(1951),!the!Supreme!Court!upheld!
the!convictions!of!a!number!of!Communist!Party!leaders!under!the!1940!Smith#Act.!Writing!
for!the!majority,!Justice!Tom!Clark!said:!“[T]he!Smith!Act!do[es]!not!inherently!...!violate!the!
First!Amendment!and!other!provisions!of!the!Bill!of!Rights,!or!the!First!and!Fifth!
Amendments!because!of!indefiniteness.!...![The!defendant’s]!conspiracy!...!to!teach!and!
advocate!the!overthrow!of!the!Government!of!the!United!States!by!force!and!violence!
created!a!‘clear!and!present!danger.’”!
In!the!landmark!case!Brandenburg#v.#Ohio!(1969),!a!leader!of!the!Ku!Klux!Klan!was!
charged!and!convicted!for!advocating!violence!under!Ohio’s!criminal!syndicalism!statute!
for!his!participation!and!speech!in!a!rally.!His!conviction!was!upheld!by!the!Ohio!Court!of!
Appeals.!However,!the!Supreme!Court!overturned!Brandenburg’s!conviction!and!
established!a!new!test!for!what!speech!can!be!limited!by!government—essentially!
reversing!Schenck!and!Dennis.!The!Brandenburg!Test!says!that!speech!can!only!be!
prohibited!if!it!is!“directed!to!inciting!or!producing!imminent!lawless!action!and!is!likely!to!
incite!or!produce!such!action."!Brandenburg#remains!the!status!quo!for!placing!limits!on!
freedom!of!speech.!
The!U.S.!government!has!similarly!restricted!free!speech,!since!September!11,!claiming!
that!the!“war!on!terror”!constitutes!a!state!of!emergency.!That!said,!rhetoric!in!the!“war!on!
terror”!demonstrates!that!the!U.S.!has!learned!from!its!history.!In!Geoffrey!Stone’s!words:!
President!Bush!deserves!credit!for!his!response!to!the!risk!of!hostile!public!relations!
against!Muslims!and!Muslim!Americans.!The!contrast!with!Wilson’s!rhetoric!about!
German!Americans!and!with!Roosevelt’s!treatment!of!Japanese!Americans!is!striking.!…!
Moreover,!as!of!this!writing!…![t]he!federal!government!has!jailed!no!one!for!antiwar!
dissent.!This!is!a!far!cry!from!the!nation’s!experience!in!1798,!the!Civil!War,!World!War!
I,!World!War!II,!and!the!Cold!War,!and!again!shows!how!far!we!have!progressed.!(2005,!
p.!551)!
Stone!makes!a!good!point.!The!U.S.!seems!to!have!learned!from!its!mistakes!but!like!many!
others!is!still!trying!to!find!the!right!balance!between!security!and!liberty.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!The!full!text!of!the!First!Amendment!follows:!“Congress!shall!make!no!law!respecting!an!
establishment!of!religion,!or!prohibiting!the!free!exercise!thereof;!or!abridging!the!freedom!
of!speech,!or!of!the!press;!or!the!right!of!the!people!peaceably!to!assemble,!and!to!petition!
the!Government!for!a!redress!of!grievances.”!
8. A.#Greenman!!!!!3!
Despite!its!history!of!placing!restrictions!on!civil!liberties,!the!U.S.!still!defends!an!
individual’s!right!to!free!speech!more!fervently!than!others.!Harvard!University!Professor!
Frederick!Schauer!wrote:!“’In!much!of!the!developed!world,!…!one!displays!Nazi!regalia!…!
at!significant!legal!risk,!and!one!urges!discrimination!against!religious!minorities!under!
threat!of!fine!or!imprisonment.!…!But!in!the!United!States,!…!all!such!speech!remains!
constitutionally!protected’”!(as!cited!in!Liptak,!2008,!para.!9).!In!fact,!“Canada,!England,!
France,!Germany,!the!Netherlands,!South!Africa,!Australia!and!India!all!have!laws!or!have!
signed!international!conventions!banning!hate!speech.!Israel!and!France!forbid!the!sale!of!
Nazi!items!like!swastikas!and!flags.”!And!in!Canada,!France!and!Germany,!it!is!illegal!“to!
deny!the!Holocaust."!These!laws!are!not!just!for!show;!they!are!regularly!enforced.!For!
example,!in!2008,!actress!and!activist!Brigitte!Bardot!“was!fined!$23,000!in!France!for!
provoking!racial!hatred!by!criticizing!a!Muslim!ceremony!involving!the!slaughter!of!sheep.”!
A!U.S.!court,!in!contrast,!refused!to!ban!the!American!Nazi!Party!from!marching!in!Skokie,!
Illinois,!in!1977,!despite!that!neighborhood’s!many!Holocaust!survivors!(Liptak,!2008,!para.!
11U13).!Regardless!of!the!fact!that!the!First!Amendment!has!its!limitations,!it!does!set!the!
U.S.!apart.!In!author!Mark!Steyn’s!words,!there!is!a!“’bedrock!difference!between!the!United!
States!and!the!countries!that!are!in!a!broad!sense!its!legal!cousins.!…!Western!governments!
are!becoming!increasingly!comfortable!with!the!regulation!of!opinion.!The!First!
Amendment!really!does!distinguish!the!U.S.!…!from!the!rest!of!the!Western!world’”!(as!cited!
in!Liptak,!2008,!para.!48).!
!
!
C.! A#History#of#Activism!
!
When!it!comes!to!defending!civil!liberties,!American!organizations!and!individuals!speak!
out!without!fear!of!reprisal.!College!students!are!among!the!most!vocal.!Most!people!have!
heard!of!the!widespread!protests!that!characterized!the!1960s.!However,!this!“was!not!the!
first!time!student!protest!erupted!on!American!campuses”!(Levine!&!Wilson,!1979,!p.!628).!
American!college!“students!have!been!involved!in!political!activities!almost!since!the!
beginning!of!higher!education!in!the!United!States”!(Altbach!&!Peterson,!1971,!p.!1).!One!of!
the!earliest!political,!student!organizations!was!the!Intercollegiate!Socialist!Society!(ISS).!
Founded!in!the!early!1900s,!members!of!the!ISS!were!primarily!concerned!with!American!
rearmament,!entry!into!World!War!I,!free!speech!and!immigration!(p.!3).!
The!patterns!of!activism!continued!into!the!1920s!despite!the!lack!of!organization!and!
significant!amount!of!repression.!Perhaps!in!response!to!repression,!most!1920s!“student!
activism!was!aimed!at!establishing!and!protecting!free!speech!on!campus.!Campus!
newspaper!editors!protested!censorship,!and!student!groups!attempted!to!bring!radical!
speakers!on!campus”!(p.!4).!The!1930s,!in!contrast,!were!a!much!more!volatile!period.!
Student!groups!“fought!…![for]!free!speech!on!campus!and!occasionally!defended!academic!
freedom,”!but!were!largely!concerned!with!the!politics!of!war!and!other!trendy!political!
issues!(p.!6).!The!volatility!of!the!1930s!largely!dissipated!in!the!1940s!and!1950s.!During!
these!two!decades,!the!few!active!student!groups!were!most!vocal!about!establishing!
universal!civil!rights!and!protecting!civil!liberties!(p.!12).!
Turmoil!returned!to!college!campuses!in!the!1960s.!Just!as!in!the!thirties,!students!were!
again!front!and!center!as!American!ideals!radically!changed.!AntiUwar!sentiment!and!
protection!of!civil!liberties!were!key!topics!of!the!period.!Students!were!engaged!“on!a!
9. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!4!
national!political!stage.!A!sitting!president,!Lyndon!Johnson,!decided!not!to!run!for!
reelection!in!part!because!of!student!demonstrations!against!his!Vietnam!policies.”!Public!
opinion!polls!during!the!1960s!reflected!the!concern!among!Americans!that!campus!
activism!was!out!of!control!(Altbach!&!Cohen,!1990,!p.!32).!
The!volatility!of!both!the!1930s!and!1960s!has!made!today’s!activism!seem!diminutive!
by!comparison.!However,!academics!argue!that!campus!unrest!still!exists—albeit!with!less!
instability.!The!last!few!decades!“[c]ompared!to!the!volatile!sixties!…![seem]!notably!
apathetic.!But!in!the!broader!context!of!American!student!activism,!the!recent!period!is!by!
no!means!unusual.!…!The!issues!that!seem!to!motivate!students!are!those!with!a!high!moral!
content—issues!such!as!repression!in!South!Africa,!racism!on!American!campuses,!or!
United!States!intervention!in!Central!America”!(Altbach!&!Peterson,!1971,!p.!47U48).!Thus!
in!spite!of!changes!in!the!form!and!significance!of!student!activism,!it!is!clearly!still!
prevalent.!And!while!many!topics!have!been!the!subject!of!said!unrest,!it!seems!intuitive!
that!protection!of!civil!liberties!remains!a!common!thread.!
In!the!U.S.!and!elsewhere,!it!is!a!generally!accepted!principle!that!the!government!of!a!
democratic!country!is!responsible!for!protecting!its!citizens!from!terror.!About!that!there!is!
little!question,!even!if!the!extent!to!which!the!administration!goes!in!the!name!of!protection!
is!an!area!of!debate.!Similarly,!it!is!clear!that!protecting!civil!liberties!is!of!the!utmost!
importance!in!the!U.S.,!even!when!a!conflicting!value!challenges!this!objective.!It!is!the!
intersection!of!counterUterrorism!policy!and!protection!of!civil!liberties!that!this!thesis!
endeavors!to!evaluate—ultimately!trying!to!determine!which!interest!is!perceived!as!more!
important!when!they!are!in!conflict!with!one!another.!
Further!this!study!attempts!to!understand!this!struggle!from!the!perspective!of!the!
American!student!population!because!they!have!historically!been!politically!active.!The!
initial!sample!of!collegiate!political!science!students!was!selected!because!“[s]tudents!from!
the!social!sciences!seem!to!be!more!interested!in!political!participation!than!those!in!
professional!programs!or!the!sciences”!(Altbach!&!Cohen,!1990,!p.!48).!It!seems!to!follow!
then!that!political!science!students!are!more!likely!to!be!civically!active!and!better!
informed!on!the!constructs!of!counterUterrorism!and!civil!liberties.!Accordingly,!this!paper!
asks:!What#is#the#opinion#of#American#political#science#students#regarding#the#possible#loss#of#
free#speech#rights#as#a#consequence#of#fighting#the#“war#on#terror”?!
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10. A.#Greenman!!!!!5!
II.# Review#of#the#Literature!
!
In!an!endeavor!to!determine!the!opinion!of!American!students!about!the!possible!loss!of!
free!speech!rights!as!a!result!of!combating!terrorism,!a!review!of!relevant!scholarly!works!
was!completed.!Three!general!themes!emerged!from!this!review:!(1)!literature!on!potential!
legislative!violations!of!civil!liberties!since!September!11,!(2)!literature!on!the!response!of!
the!courts,!and!(3)!literature!on!the!difficulties!of!balancing!the!oftenUconflicting!interests!
of!national!security!and!liberty.!In!addition!to!the!published!literature,!two!other!bodies!of!
work!were!reviewed:!the!results!of!several!relevant!public!opinion!polls!as!well!as!the!
impact!of!three!recent!events!which!brought!renewed!attention!to!the!competing!interests!
examined!in!this!paper.!
In!addition!to!the!aforementioned!topics,!there!is!also!a!large!body!of!work!on!counterU
terrorism!and!the!violation!of!human!rights.!The!majority!of!this!research!focuses!on!
legislation!with!indefinite!detention!clauses!and!the!use!of!espionage!and!torture!as!a!
means!to!gather!information!(Herman,!2011,!p.!17).!This!literature!is!not!relevant!for!the!
purposes!of!this!study!because!it!focuses!on!human!rights!violations!and!attempts!to!define!
and!classify!them,!not!specifically!on!counterUterrorism!policy,!civil!liberties!and!public!
opinion.!
!
!
A.! Potential!Legislative#Violations#of#Civil#Liberties!
!
The!first!work!that!falls!into!this!category!was!published!in!2005.!Wim!Smit!discusses!the!
2001!Patriot#Act!and!the!2004!Intelligence#Reform#Act.!The!Patriot#Act!was!passed!just!45!
days!after!the!September!11!attacks!and!has!been!criticized!by!civil!and!human!rights!
activists!ever!since.!According!to!Smit,!one!of!the!most!controversial!parts!is!“Section!215,!
which!provides!access!to!records!and!other!items!under!the!Foreign#Surveillance#Act.!With!
it,!the!FBI!has!accessed!private!medical!and!library!records!and!secretly!conducted!physical!
searches!or!wiretaps!on!American!citizens”!(p.!148).!Debate!over!this!clause!and!the!Patriot#
Act!in!general!is!about!the!law’s!potential!violation!of!the!First!and!Fourth!Amendments.!
The!First!Amendment!encompasses!freedom!of!religion,!freedom!of!speech,!freedom!of!the!
press,!freedom!of!assembly!and!the!right!to!petition!the!government.!The!Fourth!
Amendment!“protects!the!right!of!people!to!be!secure!in!their!persons,!houses,!papers,!and!
effects,!against!unreasonable!searches!and!seizures”!(p.!149).!
In!Smit’s!opinion,!this!legislation!“show[s]!that!there!is!not!only!a!tension!between!
protecting!(democratic)!values!in!the!fight!against!terrorism!…![but!also]!that!in!this!
struggle!some!civil!liberties!and!human!rights!are!sacrificed”!(p.!153).!Furthermore,!while!
“[i]t!is!the!duty!of!a!government!…!to!protect!its!citizens!against!…!terrorist!attacks![and!
while!terrorists]!often!use!all!possible!means!to!reach!their!end(s),!it!is!irresponsible![for!a!
government]!to!adopt!the!same!attitude”!(p.!159U160).!In!other!words,!the!means!do!not!
justify!the!ends.!The!threat!of!terrorism!is!not!reason!enough!to!pass!legislation!that!
violates!civil!and!human!rights.!
Golder!and!Williams!come!to!the!same!conclusion!as!Smit!arguing!that!legislation!they!
“examined,!across!the!jurisdictions!of!the!United!States,!the!United!Kingdom,!Canada,!New!
Zealand,!South!Africa!and!Australia,!go!too!far!in!curtailing!human!rights”!(2006,!p.!58).!
Golder!and!Williams’!analysis!of!counterUterrorism!legislation!is!not!limited!to!postU
11. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!6!
September!11!laws.!They!specifically!call!attention!to!the!1996!Antiterrorism#and#Effective#
Death#Penalty#Act#(AEDPA),!which!was!enacted!by!Congress!in!response!to!the!Oklahoma!
City!bombings.!
According!to!Golder!and!Williams,!legislation!enacted!after!September!11!tends!to!have!
a!number!of!features!in!common.!Each!of!these!laws!provides!a!definition!of!“terrorism,”!
“terrorist,”!“terrorist!acts”!and!other!relevant!concepts.!Each!definition!is!slightly!different!
but!are!generally!“used!either!to!ground!a!substantive!criminal!law!offence!of!terrorism!or!
to!create!ancillary!offences!such!as!financing,!supporting,!recruiting,!or!harbouring!
terrorists.”!Another!common!feature!of!postUSeptember!11!legislation!is!a!clause!that!“gives!
the!government!(or!members!of!the!executive!government)!the!power!to!proscribe!
membership!of!designated!terrorist!organizations”!(p.!47).!In!the!U.S.,!for!example,!the!
State!Department!was!given!the!sole!authority!to!determine!who!is!and!who!is!not!a!
terrorist!group.!A!third!feature!found!in!most!counterUterrorism!legislation!is!language!that!
effectively!expands!the!“investigative,!surveillance!and!enforcement!powers![of!
government!agencies]!with!respect!to!terrorism”!(p.!47).!
Some!academics!focus!on!counterUterrorism!legislation!outside!of!the!U.S.!but!
ultimately!conclude!something!very!similar!to!Smit!and!Golder/Williams.!Ellen!Parker’s!
focus!is!the!United!Kingdom!Terrorism#Act#2006.!Enacted!in!response!to!the!July!2005!
London!bombings,!this!act!bans!“statements!that!glorify!terrorism.!Thus,!despite!similar!
legal!backgrounds!and!similar!stances!on!the!war!against!terror,!the!United!Kingdom’s!
counterterrorism!legislation!has!gone!much!farther!than!the!United!States’!to!restrict!civil!
liberties,!particularly!the!freedom!of!speech”!(2007,!p.!1).!
Parker!attributes!the!differences!in!the!UK!and!U.S.’!counterUterrorism!laws!to!cultural!
differences!and!fundamental!differences!in!each!country’s!constitution!(p.!5).!In!addition!to!
discussing!the!differences!in!the!U.S.!and!UK’s!Muslim!culture,!Parker!claims!that!the!U.S.’!
unique!protection!of!civil!liberties,!in!particular!freedom!of!speech,!is!why!no!law!similar!to!
Terrorism#Act#2006!has!been!passed.!Parker’s!argument!is!very!similar!to!the!one!Steyn!
makes!in!The!New#York#Times.!Steyn!argues:!“The!First!Amendment!really!does!distinguish!
the!U.S.!…!from!the!rest!of!the!Western!world’”!(as!cited!in!Liptak,!2008).!The!UK,!in!
contrast,!has!no!“express!right!to!freedom!of!speech”!(Parker,!2007,!p.!10).!
Michael!Head’s!article,!“‘CounterUTerrorism’!Laws:!A!Threat!to!Political!Freedom,!Civil!
Liberties!and!Constitutional!Rights,”!also!deals!with!potential!legislative!violations!of!civil!
liberties!abroad.!Head!focuses!on!counterUterrorism!legislation!passed!by!Australian!Prime!
Minister!John!Howard’s!government.!Shortly!after!the!September!11!attacks,!Prime!
Minister!Howard!called!for!“an!openUended!‘war’!against!terrorism!abroad!and!curtailment!
of!legal!rights!at!home”!(2002,!p.!669).!This!language!was!similar!to!the!language!used!by!
President!Bush!and!UK!Prime!Minister!Tony!Blair.!Despite!acknowledging!“that!there!was!
no!known![terrorist]!threat!to!Australia,”!the!Howard!Administration!managed!to!pass!“a!
raft!of!five!‘counterUterrorism’!laws,!handing!unprecedented!powers!to!the!executive!
government!and!the!intelligence!and!police!agencies”!(p.!667U670).!One!of!the!most!
controversial!aspects!of!these!laws!are!the!allUencompassing!definitions!given!of!terrorism!
and!treason.!Also!problematic!are!the!parts!of!these!laws!that!ban!certain!types!of!protest,!
allow!the!government!to!jail!those!who!support!“terrorism”!and!place!the!burden!of!proof!
on!the!accused!(p.!667).!
Head!compares!the!Howard!Administration’s!counterUterrorism!policies!to!the!
Australian!Communist!Party’s!attempts!in!the!early!1950s!to!“outlaw!dissenting!political!
12. A.#Greenman!!!!!7!
activity.”!He!argues:!“The!Cold!War!…!has!ended,!but!instead!of!a!new!period!of!political!
freedom!we!are!witnessing!farUreaching!moves!against!traditional!democratic!norms.!
Warnings!issued!by!legal!commentators,!including!High!Court!Justice!Michael!Kirby’s!plea!
that!‘every!erosion!of!liberty!…!be!thoroughly!justified,’!have!fallen!on!deaf!ears”!(p.!669).!
Thus!the!threat!posed!by!terrorism,!or!at!least!the!lowUlevel!threat!that!Australia!faces,!is!
not!sufficient!reason!to!violate!civil!liberties.!
In!2012,!Human!Rights!Watch!issued!a!report!titled,!In#the#Name#of#Security:#
Counterterrorism#Laws#Worldwide#since#September#11.!Despite!primarily!calling!attention!to!
potential!legislative!violations!of!international!human!rights!law,!their!report!is!relevant!to!
this!research!because!it!specifically!addresses!freedom!of!expression.!According!to!Human!
Rights!Watch,!140Uplus!governments!have!either!passed!or!revised!counterUterrorism!
legislation!since!September!11.!They!argue!that!the!motivation!for!this!legislation!varies.!
For!some,!“major!attacks!targeting!…![their]!country”!served!as!motivation!while!others!
passed!legislation!in!“response!to!United!Nations!Security!Council!resolutions2!or!pressure!
from!countries!such!as!the!United!States!that!suffered!…!attacks”!(2012,!p.!3).!
One!case!that!is!particularly!relevant!and!interesting!is!the!conviction!of!two!Turkish!
students!for!“unfurl[ing]!a!banner!that!read,!‘We!want!free!education,!we!will!get!it.’”!
According!to!Human!Rights!Watch,!“the!students!were!convicted!of!membership!in!an!
armed!group!and!sentenced!in!2012!to!eight!years!and!five!months!in!prison”!(p.!3).!In!the!
opinion!of!Human!Rights!Watch,!this!is!by!no!means!the!only!legislative!violation!of!free!
expression!since!September!11.!In!2006,!in!fact,!
the!UN!special!rapporteur!on!human!rights!and!counterterrorism!noted!“with!concern!
the!increase!of!infringements!upon!the!exercise!of!the!right!to!freedom!of!assembly!and!
association!in!the!name!of!counterUterrorism.”!…!Some!counterterrorism!laws!contain!
vaguely!worded!provisions!that!open!the!door!to!farUreaching!restrictions!on!assembly.!
Saudi!Arabia’s!draft!counterterrorism!law,!for!example,!would!criminalize!…!raising!
“banners!or!pictures!that!infringe!upon!the!country’s!unity!or!its!safety,!or!that!call!for!
sedition!and!division!among!individuals!in!society,!or!inciting!such!acts.”!(p.!48)!
These!potential!violations!of!freedom!of!expression!represent!only!one!part!of!the!trend!in!
counterUterrorism!legislation!to!place!limits!on!civil!and!human!rights!in!an!effort!to!ensure!
security.!This!is!not!to!say!that!some!progress!has!not!been!made.!Human!Rights!Watch!
argues,!however,!that!“in!many!cases!the!reforms!have!been!grossly!insufficient”!(p.!7).!For!
this!reason,!they!make!recommendations!to!national!governments!and!the!UN.!
In!their!book,!Today’s#American:#How#Free?,!Arch!Puddington,!Jason!Kelly!and!Thomas!
Melia!examine!President!George!W.!Bush’s!counterUterrorism!policies.!They!focus!on!the!
Bush!Administration’s!policies!that!were!heavily!criticized,!including!the!Patriot#Act,!their!
“domestic!surveillance,!…!harsh!detention!and!interrogation!policies,!opening!of!a!special!
detention!facility!at!Guantanamo!Bay,!and!efforts!to!curtail!judicial!review”!(2008,!Civil!
Liberties!Implications!chapter,!para.!3).!Puddington,!Kelly!and!Melia!argue!that!“the!actions!
taken!…!in!its!war!on!terrorism!present!genuine!threats!to!the!individual!rights!of!American!
citizens.”!Despite!concluding!this,!they!note:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2!In!2001,!just!days!after!September!11,!the!United!Nations!Security!Council!passed!
Resolution!1373.!Resolution!1373!(2012)!requires!member!states!to!criminalize!“terrorist!
acts!…!in!domestic!laws!…!and![ensure]!that!the!seriousness!of!such!acts!is!duly!reflected!in!
sentences!served.”!
13. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!8!
At!the!same!time,!it!is!important!to!point!out!that!the!setbacks!to!individual!rights!
during!the!war!on!terrorism!pose!less!severe!threats!to!American!liberty!than!those!
that!arose!during!the!major!conflicts!of!the!past.!The!United!States!has!not!declared!a!
wholesale!suspension!of!habeas!corpus!rights,!outlawed!political!dissent,!placed!tens!of!
thousands!of!nonwhite!residents!in!domestic!detention!centers,!ordered!security!
services!to!conduct!campaigns!of!surveillance!against!war!critics,!or!blacklisted!
entertainers!and!academics!who!differed!with!the!policies!of!the!federal!government.!
(Civil!Liberties!Implications!chapter,!para.!3U4)!
On!one!hand,!the!authors!agree!with!the!arguments!leveled!by!Smit,!Golder/Williams,!
Parker,!Head!and!Human!Rights!Watch!that!counterUterrorism!legislation!in!the!U.S.!and!
abroad!has!restricted!civil!liberties!too!severely.!There!is!a!line!and!national!governments!
have!crossed!it!worldwide.!Civil!and!human!rights!are!fundamental!to!democracy!and!thus!
need!to!be!protected!in!the!“war!on!terror”!(Head,!2002,!p.!669;!Human!Rights!Watch,!
2012,!p.!4;!Golder!and!Williams,!2006,!p.!58;!Parker,!2007,!p.!1;!Smit,!2005,!p.!159U160).!On!
the!other!hand,!Puddington,!Kelly!and!Melia!take!issue!with!the!argument!that!current!
restrictions!on!civil!and!human!rights!are!as!bad!as!violations!of!these!rights!during!the!
Civil!War,!World!War!I,!World!War!II!and!the!Cold!War.!
!
!
B.! Response#of#the#Courts!
!
Holder#v.#Humanitarian#Law#Project!is!the!first!U.S.!Supreme!Court!case!that!deals!with!
whether!the!“war!on!terror”!is!at!odds!with!the!free!speech!rights!guaranteed!to!Americans!
in!the!First!Amendment.!According!to!David!Savage,!the!plaintiff!in!this!case,!the!
Humanitarian!Law!Project,!a!Los!AngelesUbased!nonprofit,!challenged!the!clause!in!the!
AEDPA!that!bans!providing!“material!support!to!terrorists.”!The!AEDPA!defines!“material#
support!…![as]!providing!‘service,!…!training,!expert!advice!or!assistance!(and)!personnel’”!
(2010,!p.!22).!Since!September!11,!60!people!have!been!convicted!under!this!clause,!most!
for!training!alUQaeda!members!(p.!21).!On!behalf!of!the!plaintiffs,!Georgetown!University!
Professor!David!Cole!argued:!“’This!statute!is!so!sweeping!that!it!treats!human!rights!
activists!as!criminal!terrorists’!…![The]!law!should!require!proof!that!someone!who!writes!
or!speaks!on!behalf!of!a!group!such!as!the!PKK!intended!to!further!its!illegal!and!violent!
activity”!(p.!22).3!The!other!side,!in!contrast,!argues!that!because!“terrorism!is!by!its!nature!
a!conspiracy,!it!is!necessary!…![to]!prosecute!and!punish!those!who!provide!aid!and!
comfort!to!terrorist!organizations”!(p.!21).!
Writing!for!the!majority,!Chief!Justice!John!Roberts!said:!“Congress!has!prohibited!...!
[individuals!and!organizations!from!providing]!‘material!support!or!resources’!to!certain!
foreign!organizations!that!engage!in!terrorist!activity.!...!Plaintiffs!claim!that!they!seek!to!
facilitate!only!the!lawful,!nonviolent!purposes!of!...![two!such]!groups,!and!that!applying!the!
materialUsupport!law!to!prevent!them!from!doing!so!violates!the!Constitution.!In!particular,!
they!claim!that!the!statute!is!too!vague,!in!violation!of!the!Fifth!Amendment,!and!that!it!
infringes!their!rights!to!freedom!of!speech!and!association,!in!violation!of!the!First!
Amendment.!We!conclude!that!the!materialUsupport!statute!is!...![not]!unconstitutionally!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3!The!Kurdistan!Workers!Party!(also!known!as!the!PKK)!is!one!of!30!groups!that!the!State!
Department!considers!a!terrorist!organization!(Savage,!2010,!p.!21).!
14. A.#Greenman!!!!!9!
vague”!(Holder#v.#Humanitarian#Law#Project,!2010).!Thus!the!Court!believes!the!terms!at!
issue!in!this!case—!“training,”!“expert!advice!or!assistance,”!“service,”!etc.—are!not!the!
same!as!the!terms!the!Court!has!deemed!too!vague!in!the!past!such!as!“annoying”!and!
“indecent.”!
Justice!Kirby!has!also!written!on!the!response!of!the!courts!to!infringements!of!civil!and!
human!rights!in!counterUterrorism!policy.!In!addition!to!discussing!Holder#v.#Humanitarian#
Law#Project#and!Rasul#v.#Bush,4!Justice!Kirby!considers!cases!decided!by!the!European!Court!
of!Human!Rights!and!in!South!Africa,!England,!Israel!and!Indonesia!(2005,!p.!325U344).!
Holder#v.#Humanitarian#Law#Project!is!the!most!relevant!of!the!cases!discussed!because!it!
specifically!deals!with!free!speech!rights.!In!Justice!Kirby’s!article!about!these!cases,!he!
concludes:!“[I]t!is!essential!that!strong!decisions!should!be!given!at!every!level!of!the!
judicial!hierarchy!of!every!country—upholding!the!rule!of!law!even!in!the!age!of!terrorism.!
…!This!is!the!way!it!must!be!if!we!are!not!to!lose!our!liberties”!(p.!343U344).!In!other!words,!
the!threat!posed!by!terrorism!does!not!justify!violating!the!rule!of!law.!Clearly!the!difficulty!
of!selecting!one!interest!(i.e.!security)!over!another!(i.e.!liberty)!as!most!important!is!that!
both!of!these!interests!are!considered!critical!to!a!functioning!democracy.!Thus!the!
response!of!the!courts,!especially!as!reported!by!Savage!and!Justice!Kirby,!has!exemplified!
this!challenge!and!constitutes!the!third!area!of!this!literature!review.!
!
!
C.! Security#versus#Liberty!
!
Scholars!in!this!category!of!the!literature!examine!the!difficulties!of!balancing!security!and!
liberty.!Russell!Hardin!argues!that!the!problem!is!in!the!concept!of!terrorism!itself.!He!
asserts:!
[C]ontemporary!terrorism!poses!a!new!and!ominous!problem:!how#to#structure#
government#to#protect#us#against#terrorism#while#also#protecting#us#against#the#
government#itself.!…!We!have!long!considered!how!to!protect!citizens!against!invading!
armies,!and!this!might!be!the!arena!that!is!most!nearly!analogous!to!protection!against!
terrorists.!But!foreign!terrorists!are!not!so!transparent!as!invading!armies,!and!the!
issue!of!protecting!ourselves!against!them!necessarily!involves!judgments!on!how!to!
distinguish!them!from!peaceful!citizens!and!alien!residents.!(2004,!p.!78)!
Thus!there!is!no!question!that!terrorism!poses!a!threat!nor!that!civil!liberties!ought!to!be!
protected.!Finding!the!appropriate!balance!between!national!security!and!liberty!has!
proven!difficult!because!terrorism!is!a!threat!with!several!unique!qualities.#
David!Cole!and!James!Dempsey!agree!with!Hardin.!The!increased!threat!of!terrorism!
and!the!fact!that!fighting!terrorists!is!inherently!complicated!demands!extra!caution.!That!
is!the!best!approach!to!balancing!the!competing!interests!of!national!security!and!liberty.!In!
Cole!and!Dempsey’s!words:!
Today’s!proponents!of!expanding!government!power!to!fight!terrorism!argue!that!the!
terrorist!threat!now!is!qualitatively!different!than!in!the!past.!September!11!certainly!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4!In!Rasul#v.#Bush!(2004),!the!U.S.!Supreme!Court!held!that!because!the!U.S.!“exercises!
‘complete!jurisdiction!and!control’!over!the!Guantanamo!Bay!Naval!Base,”!detainees!are!
entitled!to!habeas!corpus!(as!outlined!in!Braden#v.#30th#Judicial#Circuit#Court#of#Ky.!(1973))!
and!may!bring!suit!challenging!the!constitutionality!of!their!detention.!
15. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!10!
gave!these!arguments!added!weight.!But!the!heightened!risk!of!terrorism!simply!means!
that!the!consequences!of!failing!to!adopt!a!sound!antiterrorism!policy!are!more!serious!
than!ever!before.!It!does!not!tell!us!what!policy!to!adopt.!…!Before!adopting!measures!
that!curtail!personal!freedom,!it!might!be!more!effective!to![say]!gain!control!of!the!
nuclear!materials!of!the!former!Soviet!Union,!a!project!that!probably!would!mean!far!
more!to!national!security.!(2006,!p.!195)!
Thus!the!costs!of!failing!to!balance!security!and!liberty!are!higher!than!ever!before.!In!
addition,!there!are!other—perhaps!more!effective—ways!of!fighting!terrorism!than!
through!the!restriction!of!civil!rights.!
A!third!scholar!that!attempts!to!explain!the!complexity!of!striking!a!balance!between!
security!and!liberty!is!Alan!Dershowitz.!Dershowitz!agrees!with!Hardin!and!Cole/Dempsey!
that!terrorism!is!a!unique!threat!but!he!argues!the!opposite!of!Cole!and!Dempsey—that!
curbing!civil!rights!might!be!the!only!way!of!guaranteeing!national!security.!He!notes:!“The!
‘Constitution!is!not!a!suicide!pact,’!…![nor]!is!it!merely!a!list!of!hortatory!aspirations.!It!
represents!our!commitment!to!the!rule!of!law!and!recognizes!the!need!to!balance!security!
and!liberty.!…!Complying!with!the!law!may!make!it!more!difficult!to!maintain!order,!
especially!against!terrorists!…!whose!goal!is!disorder”!(2002,!p.!141).!In!other!words,!law!
and!order!is!not!easily!achieved!because!like!security!and!liberty,!these!concepts!are!often!
at!odds!with!each!other.!Because!terrorism!presents!a!unique!challenge,!it!may!be!
necessary!to!violate!the!“rule!of!law”!in!order!to!effectively!combat!terrorism.!Specifically,!
restricting!personal!freedom,!which!in!the!opinion!of!some!violates!the!Constitution,!may!
be!necessary!to!ensure!national!security.!
Another!important!construct!for!this!study!is!the!opinion!of!the!public.!This!research!
endeavors!not!only!to!look!at!the!intersection!between!the!conflicting!interests!of!national!
security!and!free!speech!but!also!to!find!out!which!is!more!important!to!a!segment!of!the!
public—that!segment!being!political!science!students!in!Los!Angeles!County.!Although!not!
really!part!of!the!published!academic!literature,!public!opinion!polls!have!endeavored!to!
measure!the!public's!opinion!of!various!aspects!of!the!"war!on!terror."!The!next!section!of!
this!review!summarizes!the!most!relevant!of!these!polls.!
!
!
D.! Public#Opinion!
!
Several!opinion!polls!have!been!conducted!since!September!11!to!gauge!the!public’s!
knowledge!and!opinion!of!U.S.!counterUterrorism!policies.!These!surveys!cover!a!broad!
spectrum!of!topics—everything!from!how!fearful!the!public!is!of!terrorism!to!the!public’s!
opinion!of!government!phone!and!Internet!surveillance.!For!example,!ORC!International!
reported!that!40!percent!of!Americans!are!prepared!to!sacrifice!some!civil!rights!in!order!
to!"curb!terrorism,"!while!49!percent!are!not!(2013,!p.!4).!In!addition,!ORC!International!
found!that!38!percent!favor!government!monitoring!of!calls!and!email!while!59!percent!
oppose!it.!79!percent!favor!the!“use!of!facialUrecognition!technology!to!scan!for!suspected!
terrorists!at!…!public!events,”!while!17!percent!oppose!it!(p.!5).!
Pew!Research!Center!found!that!31!percent!of!the!public!thinks!that!the!war!in!
Afghanistan!has!made!the!U.S.!safer,!while!21!percent!feel!less!safe!and!43!percent!see!no!
difference.!50!percent!believe!that!the!drone!program!has!made!the!U.S.!safer,!while!14!
percent!feel!less!safe!and!27!percent!see!no!difference!(2013,!Section!4,!para.!2U3).!
16. A.#Greenman!!!!!11!
A!set!of!Gallup!polls!ask!a!variety!of!questions!about!the!"war!on!terror"!comparing!the!
results!over!time.!In!2007,!Gallup!reported!that!33!percent!of!Americans!think!the!
Guantanamo!Bay!prison!should!be!closed,!while!53!percent!think!it!should!stay!open.!In!
2014,!by!contrast,!29!percent!said!it!should!be!closed,!while!66!percent!said!it!should!stay!
open!(p.!1).!When!asked!who!is!winning!the!"war!on!terror"!in!2011,!42!percent!said!the!
U.S.,!9!percent!said!the!terrorists!and!46!percent!said!neither!(p.!3).!
In!addition!to!providing!ideas!on!how!to!formulate!this!study,!this!breadth!of!literature!
and!the!relevant!opinion!polls!summarized!here!have!provided!a!framework!of!what!
questions!remain!unanswered!in!the!field!of!counterUterrorism!studies.!A!gap!in!the!
literature!was!identified,!specifically!when!it!comes!to!public!opinion!on!the!restrictions!
U.S.!counterUterrorism!policy!has!placed!on!the!First!Amendment!right!to!freedom!of!
speech.!This!topic!of!study!has!further!been!supported!by!a!continuing!debate!that!has!been!
fueled!recently!by!three!current!events.!These!events!are!summarized!in!the!next!section.!
!
!
E.! Debate#Rages#On!
!
In!the!last!couple!of!years,!three!events!have!illustrated!that!debate!continues!over!the!
conflicting!interests!of!national!security!and!liberty.!Thus!it!is!not!only!the!gap!in!the!
literature!that!suggests!this!study!area,!but!also!the!increased!public!awareness!that!has!
been!fueled!by!the!arrest!of!Justin!Carter,!the!shootings!at!the!offices!of!the!French!
magazine!Charlie#Hebdo!and!the!shootings!at!a!Copenhagen!café!hosting!a!free!speech!
event.!These!three!events!have!brought!renewed!attention!to!the!intersection!of!national!
security!and!free!speech!rights.!Following!are!the!details!of!these!three!incidents.!
In!February!2013,!Justin!Carter,!a!Texan!teen!and!gamer,!was!arrested!for!posting!
“terroristic!threats.”!Reportedly,!“after!being!called!‘insane’!by!another!player,”!Carter!said:!
“‘Oh!yeah,!I’m!real!messed!up!in!the!head,!I’m!going!to!go!shoot!up!a!school!full!of!kids!and!
eat!their!still,!beating!hearts’”!(Tassi,!2013,!para.!2U3).!Carter’s!case!has!renewed!debate!
about!U.S.!counterUterrorism!policy!and!the!protection!of!civil!liberties.!Those!on!Carter’s!
side!ask:!“Should!someone!who!is!barely!an!adult!spend!eight!years!in!jail!for!an!angry!
offhand[ed]!comment!made!in!an!online!video!game,!however!terrible!the!sentiment?“!
Essentially!this!is!being!pitched!as!a!free!speech!case!that!illustrates!that!U.S.!counterU
terrorism!laws!have!gone!too!far!(Tassi,!2013,!para.!7).!
Similar!debate!has!been!sparked!by!the!recent!shootings!in!Paris!and!Copenhagen.!On!
January!7,!2015,!gunmen!killed!twelve!people!at!the!offices!of!French!satirical!magazine!
Charlie#Hebdo.!The!reason!for!the!shooting!is!said!to!be!the!cartoons!of!the!Muslim!Prophet!
Muhammad!published!in!Charlie#Hebdo!(Vinograd,!Jamieson,!Viala,!&!Smith,!2015,!para.!1U
3).!Then!on!February!14,!a!gunman!fired!into!a!café!in!north!Copenhagen!hosting!a!forum!
titled,!“Art,!Blasphemy!and!the!Freedom!of!Expression.”!One!person!died!and!three!were!
injured!in!the!shooting.!Among!those!taking!part!in!the!debate!were!Lars!Vilks,!a!Swedish!
cartoonist,!and!the!French!ambassador!to!Denmark,!François!Zimeray.!Vilks!“has!received!
death!threats!for!his!depiction!of!the!prophet!Muhammad!with!the!body!of!a!dog!in!2007.”!
Both!shootings!have!“ignited!passionate!debate!across!Europe!over!the!right!of!free!
expression!and!whether!speech!that!insults!a!particular!religion!or!group!should!be!
protected”!(Witte!&!Adam,!2015,!para.!20U26).!Judy!Dempsey!from!the!Carnegie!
Endowment!for!International!Peace,!for!example,!argues!that!the!incident!“should!
18. A.#Greenman!!!!!13!
III.# Methodology!
!
This!paper!asks:!What#is#the#opinion#of#American#political#science#students#regarding#the#
possible#loss#of#free#speech#rights#as#a#consequence#of#fighting#the#“war#on#terror”?!To!answer!
this!question,!I!surveyed!students!taking!political!science!classes!at!colleges!and!
universities!in!Los!Angeles!(L.A.).!Since!there!is!no!public!database!of!emails!for!my!target!
audience,!I!devised!another!method!of!distributing!my!survey.!While!in!L.A.,!I!contacted!
political!science!faculty!at!L.A.Uarea!schools!via!email!and!set!appointments!to!meet!with!
those!who!were!willing!to!participate.!
Each!meeting!commenced!with!a!brief!explanation!of!my!research.!I!then!asked!to!
distribute!my!survey!to!students!in!their!spring!classes.!The!distribution!was!either!by!
providing!an!electronic!version!or!by!attending!one!or!more!of!their!classes!and!
distributing!my!survey!personally.5!
My!initial!email!was!sent!to!every!fullUtime!political!science!faculty!member!at!the!17!
Los!AngelesUarea!colleges!and!universities!with!relevant!departments!ranked!in!Forbes#
Magazine.6!I!also!included!ClaremontUMcKenna!College,!which!is!not!part!of!the!Forbes’!
rankings!because!they!were!penalized!for!providing!incorrect!information!to!the!U.S.!
Department!of!Education.!I!chose!to!work!with!L.A.Uarea!schools!because!I!have!direct!
access!as!I!am!originally!from!Los!Angeles.!Also,!as!a!major!metropolitan!area,!it!is!home!to!
some!of!the!most!diverse!colleges!and!universities!in!the!country.!
Recognizing!that!this!population!is!not!a!broad,!inclusive!sample!of!the!American!public,!
there!is!reason!to!believe!that!this!poll!produced!valid!results.!Professors!Russell!Brooker!
and!Todd!Schaefer!outline!six!informal!methods!of!measuring!public!opinion.!One!of!the!
methods!they!discuss!is!straw!polls,!the!method!I!selected!for!this!study.!Their!explanation!
says:!“…![T]here!is!no!effort!to!make!the!people!who!answer!these!surveys!…!
representative!of!all!…!constituents.!Nevertheless!…!Congress!often!do!use!the!results!of!
these!straw!polls”!(Brooker!and!Schaefer,!p.!4).!Thus,!a!nonUrepresentative!poll!is!still!
considered!a!valid!mechanism!of!measuring!public!opinion.!Furthermore!this!study!is!not!
meant!to!provide!a!statement!about!American!public!opinion!in!general,!but!rather!serve!as!
a!starting!point!that!utilizes!a!wellUinformed!target!group!as!a!first!pass.!
There!are!also!some!advantages!to!starting!the!inquiry!with!this!particular!group!of!
students.!To!begin!with,!they!are!a!highly!educated!segment!and!because!they!are!studying!
political!science!specifically,!they!are!more!likely!to!understand!the!concepts!of!civil!liberty!
and!counterUterrorism.!In!addition,!students!studying!political!science!tend!to!pursue!
careers!as!policymakers,!lobbyists,!researchers,!lawyers,!etc.!They!will!arguably!have!a!
major!stake!in!the!need!to!protect!our!nation!without!infringing!upon!civil!and!human!
rights!too!significantly.!Finally,!this!study!will!provide!useful!input!to!U.S.!policymakers.!
Understanding!how!the!public!considers!policies!surrounding!the!restriction!of!free!speech,!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5!See!appendices!A!and!B!for!a!copy!of!my!survey!and!the!disclosure!statement!distributed!
with!each!one.!Note!that!the!answer!choices!on!each!survey!that!was!distributed!appeared!
in!a!slightly!different!order!in!an!effort!to!minimize!bias!due!to!the!placement!of!answer!
choices.!
6!For!a!complete!list!of!the!schools!ranked!in!2014!in!Forbes#Magazine,!go!to!
http://www.forbes.com/topUcolleges/list/.!
20. A.#Greenman!!!!!15!
IV.# Key#Findings!
!
There!were!277!political!science!faculty!members!that!were!contacted!via!the!initial!
inquiry.!Of!these,!31!allowed!me!to!distribute!my!survey.!The!31!instructors!teach!at!one!of!
the!following!Los!AngelesUarea!colleges!or!universities:!
!
• California!State!University,!Los!Angeles;!
• California!State!Polytechnic!University,!Pomona;!
• California!State!University,!Long!Beach;!
• California!State!University,!Northridge;!
• ClaremontUMcKenna!College;!
• Loyola!Marymount!University;!
• Occidental!College;!
• Pepperdine!University;!
• Pitzer!College;!
• Pomona!College;!
• University!of!La!Verne!and!
• University!of!Southern!California.7!
!
In!aggregate,!840!students!were!surveyed!with!737!of!those!responses!collected!inUperson.!!
The!additional!103!surveys!were!submitted!electronically!through!SurveyMonkey’s!data!
collection!website.!
The!graphs!on!the!following!pages!illustrate!the!results!of!my!survey.!They!are!
organized!by!question.!These!charts!cover!the!first!seven!survey!questions!because!they!
are!most!relevant!to!the!topic!of!this!thesis.!Each!figure’s!title!reflects!the!content!of!its!
associated!chart!including!question!and!answer!numbers.!Following!is!a!more!detailed!
description!of!the!charted!results:!
!
• Figures!1.1,!2.1,!3.1,!4.1,!5.1,!6.1!and!7.1!illustrate!the!general!results!of!my!survey.!
• Figures!1.2,!1.3,!1.4,!1.5,!1.6,!2.2,!2.3,!2.4,!2.5,!2.6,!3.2,!3.3,!3.4,!3.5,!3.6,!4.2,!4.3,!4.4,!
4.5,!4.6,!5.2,!5.3,!5.4,!5.5!and!5.6!illustrate!the!results!of!my!survey!by!question!
combined!with!one!of!the!demographic!variables!(gender,!age,!race/ethnicity,!
political!affiliation!or!household!income).!These!demographic!variables!were!
selected!because!when!combined!with!the!responses,!they!presented!the!most!
interesting!results.!
• Figures!are!divided!into!seven!subUsections,!representative!of!the!first!seven!
questions!on!my!survey.!These!sections!are!as!follows:!(1)!Government!
Responsibility,!(2)!Primary!Concern,!(3)!Likelihood!of!Success,!(4)!Sacrificing!Free!
Speech,!(5)!The!Patriot!Act,!(6)!CounterUTerrorism!Curriculum,!and!(7)!Civil!
Liberties!Curriculum.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7!Note!that!the!first!four!of!these!schools!are!public!institutions!while!the!rest!are!private.!
The!main!difference!between!public!and!private!colleges!and!universities!is!that!private!
schools!are!privately!funded!and!thus!tend!to!have!higher!tuition!than!public!schools.!Many!
private!schools!also!have!smaller!student!populations.!
21. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!16!
A.! Government#Responsibility!
!
The!first!question!on!my!survey!gets!at!how!political!science!students!understand!the!
federal!government’s!role!in!protecting!its!citizens.!Even!if!a!student’s!knowledge!of!the!
“war!on!terror”!is!limited,!it!is!reasonable!to!assume!that!as!students!interested!in!politics!
and!public!policy,!they!have!thought!about!what!the!government’s!role!is!in!protecting!
citizens!such!as!themselves!from!security!threats!such!as!terrorists.!The!question!was!
worded!as!follows:!
!
1. Is!it!the!U.S.!government’s!responsibility!to!protect!its!citizens!from!terrorists?!
a. Yes!
b. Undecided!
c. No!
!
Respondents!had!a!choice!of!three!answers!as!shown!above.!The!overall!results!of!this!
question!(illustrated!in!Figure!1.1)!clearly!show!that!the!majority!of!respondents!(94!
percent)!believe!it!is!the!U.S.!government’s!responsibility!to!protect!its!citizens!from!
terrorists.!Only!1!percent!(10!respondents)!chose!no!and!5!percent!(43!respondents)!chose!
undecided.!
Figures!1.2,!1.3,!1.4,!1.5!and!1.6!further!confirm!the!overall!conclusion!that!the!
government!should!take!responsibility!for!protecting!its!citizenry!from!terrorists.!When!
divided!by!gender,!age!group,!race/ethnicity,!political!affiliation!and!household!income,!
respondents!basically!answer!the!same,!overwhelmingly!choosing!the!first!option—yes.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
22. A.#Greenman!!!!!17!
!
!
!
!
10!
43!
787!
0! 100! 200! 300! 400! 500! 600! 700! 800! 900!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.1!
Government!Responsibility!Overall!
5!
14!
343!
4!
27!
439!
0! 100! 200! 300! 400! 500!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.2!
Government!Responsibility!by!Gender!
Female!
Male!
23. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!18!
!
!
!
!
0!
2!
54!
5!
6!
162!
5!
34!
568!
0!
1!
3!
0! 100! 200! 300! 400! 500! 600!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.3#
Government!Responsibility!by!Age!Group#
Under!18!
18U21!
22U25!
Over!25!
2!
11!
267!
0!
0!
1!
2!
3!
80!
1!
11!
232!
2!
9!
94!
0!
0!
66!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250! 300!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.4!
Government!Responsibility!by!Race/Ethnicity!
African!American/Black!
Asian/Paciwic!Islander!
Hispanic/Latino!
Multiracial!
Native!American/American!
Indian!
White!
24. A.#Greenman!!!!!19!
!
!
!
!
!
1!
1!
77!
2!
9!
124!
1!
14!
405!
0! 100! 200! 300! 400! 500!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.5!
Government!Responsibility!by!Political!Afwiliation!
Democratic!Party!
Independent!
Republican!Party!
1!
8!
163!
2!
7!
118!
2!
5!
124!
2!
7!
234!
3!
12!
109!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!1.6!
Government!Responsibility!by!Household!Income!
Less!than!25,000!
$25,000!to!$64,999!
$65,000!to!$99,999!
$100,000!to!$149,999!
Greater!than!$150,000!
25. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!20!
B.! Primary#Concern!
!
I!asked!the!following!question!in!an!effort!to!determine!how!far!students!feel!the!U.S.!
government!should!go!to!protect!its!citizens.!Will!they!go!too!far!and!pursue!counterU
terrorism!policies!that!excessively!restrict!the!rights!of!their!citizens,!in!particular!freedom!
of!speech!or!will!they!fail!and!pursue!policies!that!are!too!weak!to!make!a!difference!in!the!
“war!on!terror”?!The!exact!wording!of!this!question!is!as!follows:!
!
2. What!concerns!you!more!right!now?!
a. That!the!government!will!enact!new!antiUterrorism!policies!that!excessively!
restrict!the!average!person’s!free!speech!rights!
b. That!the!government!will!fail!to!enact!strong,!new!antiUterrorism!policies!
c. Undecided!
d. Neither!
!
The!majority!of!respondents!(53!percent)!said!that!the!government!will!enact!counterU
terrorism!legislation!that!restricts!free!speech!rights!too!severely.!A!considerably!smaller!
percentage!of!respondents!(23)!said!that!the!government!will!fail!to!enact!strong,!new!
counterUterrorism!policies.!Just!13!and!11!percent!of!respondents!selected!options!c!and!d,!
respectively.!It!is!interesting!to!note!that!the!percentage!of!respondents!who!chose!c!or!d!
equal!roughly!the!percentage!that!chose!answer!b.!
Just!as!with!question!1,!reviewing!the!results!of!question!2!demographically!did!not!
greatly!affect!the!results.!For!example,!Figure!2.2,!which!illustrates!the!results!of!question!2!
by!gender,!shows!that!the!majority!of!respondents,!regardless!of!whether!they!were!female!
or!male,!selected!the!first!option—that!the!government!will!enact!new!antiUterrorism!
policies!that!excessively!restrict!the!average!person’s!free!speech!rights.!The!same!trend!is!
illustrated!in!Figures!2.3,!2.4,!2.5!and!2.6.!
!
!
!
29. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!24!
C.! Likelihood#of#Success!
!
I!included!the!following!question!in!my!survey!because!it!is!crucial!to!see!whether!this!
group!of!students!believes!the!U.S.!government!can!succeed!in!its!efforts.!
!
3. Which!comes!closer!to!your!view?!
a. Terrorists!will!always!find!a!way!to!launch!major!attacks!no!matter!what!the!U.S.!
government!does!
b. The!U.S.!government!can!eventually!prevent!all!major!attacks!if!it!works!hard!
enough!at!the!endeavor!
c. Undecided!
!
Overall,!the!majority!(55!percent)!answered!that!terrorists!will!always!find!a!way!to!
launch!major!attacks.!Does!this!in!turn!means!that!the!U.S.!government!should!pursue!
different!counterUterrorism!policies!or!perhaps!not!bother?!Again,!a!much!smaller!
percentage!of!respondents!(27)!said!that!the!U.S.!government!can!eventually!prevent!all!
major!attacks.!154!respondents!(18!percent)!said!they!were!undecided.!It!is!interesting!to!
note!that!this!question!a!larger!number!of!respondents!marking!undecided!than!in!
questions!1!and!2.!
When!broken!down!demographically!(see!Figures!3.2,!3.3,!3.4,!3.5!and!3.6),!the!results!
are!consistent!with!my!overall!findings.!Interestingly,!in!both!the!overall!and!demographic!
measures,!respondents!almost!always!chose!answer!a!twice!as!many!times!as!answer!b.!For!
example,!Figure!3.4!shows!that!155!respondents!who!identify!as!white!chose!answer!a!and!
76!chose!answer!b.!The!distinction!between!answers!b!and!c!in!the!overall!and!
demographic!measures!is!much!closer,!sometimes!just!about!even!with!each!other.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
31. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!26!
4!
15!
37!
26!
47!
100!
123!
162!
322!
1!
1!
2!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250! 300! 350!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!3.3!
Likelihood!of!Success!by!Age!Group#
Under!18!
18U21!
22U25!
Over!25!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
49!
76!
155!
0!
1!
0!
17!
22!
46!
46!
66!
132!
15!
27!
63!
11!
17!
38!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!3.4!
Likelihood!of!Success!by!Race/Ethnicity#
African!American/Black!
Asian/Paciwic!Islander!
Hispanic/Latino!
Multiracial!
Native!American/American!
Indian!
White!
32. A.#Greenman!!!!!27!
!
!
!
!
!
!
11!
24!
44!
14!
36!
85!
87!
121!
212!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!3.5!
Likelihood!of!Success!by!Political!Afwiliation!
Democratic!Party!
Independent!
Republican!Party!
31!
49!
92!
22!
37!
68!
24!
30!
77!
44!
61!
138!
22!
37!
65!
0! 50! 100! 150!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!3.6!
Likelihood!of!Success!by!Household!Income#
Less!than!25,000!
$25,000!to!$64,999!
$65,000!to!$99,999!
$100,000!to!$149,999!
Greater!than!$150,000!
33. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!28!
D.! Sacrificing#Free#Speech!
!
The!following!question!is!the!most!directly!relevant!to!the!question!upon!which!this!
research!was!based—What#is#the#opinion#of#American#political#science#students#regarding#
the#possible#loss#of#free#speech#rights#as#a#consequence#of#fighting#the#“war#on#terror”?!Most!
argue!that!there!is!a!“line”!that!the!government!must!not!cross!in!its!efforts!to!ensure!the!
security!of!its!citizens.!This!question!attempts!to!measure!whether!that!line!has!already!
been!breached!or!if!civil!liberties!such!as!freedom!of!speech!could!be!further!restricted.!The!
exact!wording!of!this!survey!question!is!as!follows:!
!!
4. Would!you!be!willing!to!give!up!some!free!speech!rights!if!that!were!necessary!to!
curb!terrorism!in!this!country?!
a. Depends!on!what!additional!restrictions!are!added!
b. No,!not!willing—civil!liberties!are!as!restricted!as!they!should!be!
c. Yes,!willing—even!beyond!what!is!restricted!today!
d. Undecided!
!!
Figure!4.1!shows!that!most!(53!percent)!selected!answer!a,!the!most!cautionary!
response.!Another!32!percent!of!respondents!said!they!were!not!willing!to!sacrifice!free!
speech!rights!in!order!to!curb!terrorism.!10!percent!said!they!were!willing.!And!4!percent!
said!they!were!undecided.!Noting!the!considerable!difference!between!the!number!of!
respondents!who!chose!answer!b!(272)!and!those!who!chose!answer!c!(85)!is!also!
important.!Just!over!three!times!the!number!of!students!surveyed!said!they!were!not!
willing!(answer!b)!compared!to!those!that!said!they!were!willing!(answer!c).!
Even!when!broken!down!demographically!(see!Figures!4.2,!4.3,!4.4,!4.5!and!4.6),!the!
results!of!this!question!look!relatively!the!same!as!the!trend!illustrated!in!Figure!4.1.!Take!
Figure!4.3,!for!example,!which!illustrates!the!results!of!this!question!by!age!group.!The!
majority!of!college!students!fall!into!either!the!18!to!21!group!or!the!22!to!25!group.!
Because!September!11!occurred!14!years!ago!now,!there!are!many!who!do!not!have!a!firstU
hand!account!of!that!day!and!the!impact!it!had!on!the!U.S.!Could!that!singular!event!affect!
the!way!students!responded!to!this!question?!If!you!remember!where!you!were!when!the!
planes!hit!the!towers,!would!you!be!more!likely!to!secede!some!of!your!free!speech!rights!
so!that!sort!of!event!does!not!happen!again?!In!contrast,!if!you!do!not!remember!September!
11!and!have!only!seen!pictures!or!heard!about!the!gravity!of!the!event,!are!you!less!likely!to!
be!okay!with!sacrificing!free!speech!rights!in!an!effort!to!curb!terrorism?!
Clearly!more!students!aged!18!to!21!took!my!survey!with!329!of!them!choosing!option!a!
(depends),!179!choosing!option!b!(not!willing),!71!choosing!option!c!(yes,!willing)!and!28!
choosing!option!d!(undecided).!In!fact,!students!aged!18!to!21!selected!answer!b!twoUandU
halfUtimes!as!much!as!those!who!selected!answer!c.!Yet!the!two!oldest!age!groups!(22U25!
and!over!25)!were!no!less!dramatic.!There!were!still!considerably!more!respondents!not!
willing!to!secede!further!civil!liberties!than!those!willing!to!do!so.!Since!the!college!
population!measured!by!this!research!was!overwhelming!in!the!age!group!too!young!to!
have!experienced!September!11,!the!results!at!a!minimum!suggest!that!this!is!a!prime!area!
for!further!study.!
!
!
36. A.#Greenman!!!!!31!
2!
25!
45!
100!
2!
17!
35!
73!
5!
12!
37!
77!
16!
19!
90!
118!
7!
10!
53!
54!
0! 20! 40! 60! 80! 100! 120! 140!
d!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!4.6!
Sacriwicing!Free!Speech!by!Household!Income!
Less!than!25,000!
$25,000!to!$64,999!
$65,000!to!$99,999!
$100,000!to!$149,999!
Greater!than!$150,000!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
1!
9!
27!
42!
3!
21!
43!
68!
14!
36!
132!
238!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250!
d!
c!
b!
a!
Figure!4.5!
Sacriwicing!Free!Speech!by!Political!Afwiliation!
Democratic!Party!
Independent!
Republican!Party!
37. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!32!
E.! The#Patriot#Act#
!
The!following!question!was!included!because!the!Patriot#Act!is!one!of!the!most!
controversial!pieces!of!legislation!passed!since!September!11!and!is!often!used!to!justify!
federal!policies!that!very!well!might!infringe!on!civil!liberties.!
!!
5. Do!you!think!the!Patriot!Act!has!restricted!the!average!person’s!free!speech!rights!
too!severely?!
a. No!
b. Yes!
c. Undecided!
d. I!do!not!know!the!Patriot!Act!
!!
Respondents!were!much!more!split!in!answering!this!question!than!in!questions!1!
through!4!where!one!answer!was!overwhelmingly!selected!more!than!the!others.!In!fact,!
just!under!or!over!25!percent!of!respondents!selected!answers!a,!b!and!c!while!18.5!percent!
said!they!did!not!know!the!Patriot#Act.!Perhaps!this!is!an!area!that!needs!to!be!focused!on!
in!collegeUlevel!political!science!classes!(see!the!next!section—for!further!results!on!how!
often!and!in!what!ways!these!subjects!are!taught!in!L.A.Uarea!higher!education!programs).!!
Interestingly,!the!demographics!did!make!some!difference!on!this!question!(see!Figures!
5.2,!5.3,!5.4,!5.5!and!5.6)!compared!to!the!results!seen!in!the!first!four!questions.!For!
example,!on!Figure!5.2!we!see!that!while!females!were!more!evenly!split,!males!were!much!
more!likely!to!select!answers!a!or!b!(123!and!125,!respectively)!than!c!or!d!(79!and!35).!
There!were!similar!differences!in!the!analysis!of!responses!by!household!income.!
Respondents!in!the!two!highest!income!brackets!($100,000!to!$149,999!and!greater!than!
$150,000)!were!actually!more!split!between!answers!a!and!b!compared!to!respondents!in!
the!brackets!under!$100,000.!53!students!with!a!household!income!of!$100,000!to!
$149,999!chose!answer!a!while!22!chose!answer!b.!64!students!with!a!household!income!
greater!than!$150,000!chose!answer!a!while!46!chose!answer!b.!Yet!those!who!reported!
household!income!under!$100,000!were!again!more!evenly!split.!For!those!in!the!lowest!
income!bracket!($25,000!to!$64,999),!59!chose!answer!a,!63!chose!answer!b,!69!chose!
answer!c!and!52!chose!answer!d.!Among!those!who!reported!being!raised!in!a!household!
with!an!income!of!$65,000!to!a!$99,999,!38!chose!answer!a,!37!chose!answer!b,!31!chose!
answer!c!and!25!chose!answer!d.!
!
43. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!38!
V.########Conclusions!
!!
There!is!clearly!a!line.!Most!are!willing!to!submit!to!invasions!of!personal!space!before!
boarding!an!airplane.!However,!those!same!people!would!probably!take!issue!with!going!
through!the!same!security!measures!to!go!into!a!grocery!store!or!café.!Thus!the!question!is!
whether!it!is!necessary!to!sacrifice!some!of!our!personal!freedom!to!prevent!tragedies!like!
September!11!and!more!recently,!the!Charlie#Hebdo!shootings.!This!paper!addresses!this!
very!question!focusing!on!specifically!the!possible!loss!of!free!speech!rights!as!a!
consequence!of!fighting!the!“war!on!terror.”!
!!
!!
A.!!!!!!!!!Major#Takeaways!
!!
Overall,!it!seems!that!liberty!trumps!security!in!the!opinion!of!this!group!of!political!science!
students.!I!say!this!because!the!results!of!the!most!relevant!question!on!my!survey!(Would!
you!be!willing!to!give!up!some!free!speech!rights...)!show!that!the!majority!(53!percent)!are!
not!simply!willing!to!agree.!By!and!large,!these!students!feel!that!it!depends!on!what!
additional!restrictions!are!added.!Another!32!percent!said!they!were!not!willing!to!give!up!
some!free!speech!rights!in!the!counterUterrorism!effort.!
Another!takeaway!from!this!study!was!the!surprising!result!that!demographics!did!not!
make!a!significant!difference.!Consider!for!example!the!issue!of!a!woman’s!right!to!choose,!
one!of!the!most!often!debated!topics!of!our!time.!Surely!we!would!see!major!differences!
across!gender,!age,!race/ethnicity,!political!affiliation!and!household!income.!As!well!this!
would!likely!be!the!case!with!the!topic!of!immigration!reform,!particularly!in!U.S.!states!
where!this!is!a!more!contested!issue!such!as!California.!Yet!in!this!study,!demographics!did!
not!generally!matter.!It!seems!that!where!civil!liberties!are!concerned,!especially!free!
speech!rights,!there!is!agreement!across!genders,!political!affiliations,!races/ethnicities,!age!
groups!and!household!income!brackets.!
!!
!!
B.!!!!!!!!!Opportunities#for#Future#Research!
!!
The!most!obvious!opportunity!for!future!research!is!to!administer!this!survey!or!one!very!
similar!to!students!studying!political!science!across!the!country.!If!possible,!data!needs!to!
be!collected!from!students!in!multiple!classes!at!both!public!and!private!colleges!and!
universities!in!all!50!states.!A!comparison!from!state!to!state!would!also!be!of!interest,!
especially!if!the!states!of!New!York!and!Oklahoma,!profoundly!impacted!by!acts!of!
terrorism,!could!be!included.!
Another!obvious!extension!to!this!study!would!be!to!include!older!respondents,!
perhaps!those!working!in!the!political!arena!so!that!they!still!remain!highly!familiar!with!
the!constructs!at!the!center!of!this!study—counterUterrorism!and!civil!liberties.!
Finally,!it!would!be!interesting!to!see!if!the!results!would!change!if!students!or!other!
political!participants!were!asked!about!privacy!rights!or!other!civil!liberties!instead!of!just!
freedom!of!speech.!
!
#
44. A.#Greenman!!!!!39!
References!
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Brandenburg!v.!Ohio,!395!U.S.!444!(1969).!
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Cole,!D.!&!Dempsey,!J.!X.!(2006).!Terrorism#and#the#constitution:#Sacrificing#civil#liberties#in##
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Foreign!Relations!and!Intercourse,!22!U.S.C.!§!2656f!(2010).!
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Golder,!B.!&!Williams,!G.!(2006).!Balancing!national!security!and!human!rights:!Assessing!!
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constitutional!rights.!Melbourne#University#Law#Review,#26,!666U689.!Retrieved!from!
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Kirby,!M.!D.!(2005).!Terrorism:!The!international!response!of!the!courts.!Indiana#Journal#of##
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47. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!42!
Appendices!
!
!
A.# Survey!
!
1. Is!it!the!U.S.!government’s!responsibility!to!protect!its!citizens!from!terrorists?!
d. Yes!
e. Undecided!
f. No!
!
2. What!concerns!you!more!right!now?!
e. That!the!government!will!enact!new!antiUterrorism!policies!that!excessively!
restrict!the!average!person’s!free!speech!rights!
f. That!the!government!will!fail!to!enact!strong,!new!antiUterrorism!policies!
g. Undecided!
h. Neither!
!
3. Which!comes!closer!to!your!view?!
d. Terrorists!will!always!find!a!way!to!launch!major!attacks!no!matter!what!the!U.S.!
government!does!
e. The!U.S.!government!can!eventually!prevent!all!major!attacks!if!it!works!hard!
enough!at!the!endeavor!
f. Undecided!
!
4. Would!you!be!willing!to!give!up!some!free!speech!rights!if!that!were!necessary!to!curb!
terrorism!in!this!country?!
a. Depends!on!what!additional!restrictions!are!added!!
b. No,!not!willing—civil!liberties!are!as!restricted!as!they!should!be!
c. Yes,!willing—even!beyond!what!is!restricted!today!
d. Undecided!
!
5. Do!you!think!the!Patriot!Act!has!restricted!the!average!person’s!free!speech!rights!too!
severely?!
a. No!
b. Yes!
c. Undecided!
d. I!do!not!know!the!Patriot!Act!
!
6. Has!the!topic!of!counterUterrorism!been!addressed!in!your!political!science!curriculum?!
e. It!is!addressed!appropriately!
f. It!is!addressed!but!not!enough!
g. It!is!not!addressed!
h. It!is!addressed!too!much!
!
7. Has!the!topic!of!civil!liberties!been!addressed!in!your!political!science!curriculum?!
e. It!is!addressed!appropriately!
48. A.#Greenman!!!!!43!
f. It!is!addressed!but!not!enough!
g. It!is!not!addressed!
h. It!is!addressed!too!much!
!
8. If!the!topics!of!counterUterrorism!and/or!civil!liberties!have!been!addressed,!please!
circle!the!formats!that!apply.!
a. Assigned!reading(s)!on!one!or!more!of!these!topics!
b. Class!lecture(s)!
c. InUclass!discussion(s)!and/or!debate(s)!
d. Independent!research!and/or!review!of!current!events!
e. Other!(events,!seminars,!etc.)!
!
9. What!is!your!class!status?!
a. Freshman!
b. Sophomore!
c. Junior!
d. Senior!
e. Graduate!student!
f. Continuing!education!student!
!
10. What!is/are!your!major(s)?!
a. !
b. !
!
11. What!is!your!minor!(if!applicable)?!
a. !
!
12. What!is!your!gender?
a. Female!
b. Male!
c. Transgender!
d. Prefer!not!to!respond
!
13. What!is!your!age?!
a. Under!18!
b. 18U21!
c. 22U25!
d. Over!25
!
14. What!is!your!race/ethnicity?!!
a. African!American/Black!
b. Asian/Pacific!Islander!
c. Hispanic/Latino!
d. Multiracial!
e. Native!American/American!Indian!
f. White!
49. Keeping#Our#Nation#Safe!!!!!44!
g. Other!
h. Prefer!not!to!respond
!
15. What!is!your!political!affiliation?
a. Constitution!Party!
b. Democratic!Party!
c. Green!Party!
d. Independent!
e. Libertarian!Party!
f. Republican!Party!
g. Other!
h. Prefer!not!to!respond!
!
16. In!what!U.S.!region!were!you!raised?!
a. Pacific!(Alaska,!California,!Hawaii,!Oregon!or!Washington)!
b. Mountain!(Arizona,!Colorado,!Idaho,!Montana,!Nevada,!New!Mexico,!Utah,!
Wyoming)!
c. West!North!Central!(Iowa,!Kansas,!Minnesota,!Missouri,!Nebraska,!North!Dakota,!
South!Dakota)!
d. East!North!Central!(Illinois,!Indiana,!Michigan,!Ohio,!Wisconsin)!
e. West!South!Central!(Arkansas,!Louisiana,!Oklahoma,!Texas)!
f. East!South!Central!(Alabama,!Kentucky,!Mississippi,!Tennessee)!
g. South!Atlantic!(Delaware,!District!of!Columbia,!Florida,!Georgia,!Maryland,!North!
Carolina,!South!Carolina,!Virginia,!West!Virginia)!
h. Middle!Atlantic!(New!Jersey,!New!York,!Pennsylvania)!
i. New!England!(Connecticut,!Maine,!Massachusetts,!New!Hampshire,!Rhode!
Island,!Vermont)!
j. Outside!of!the!U.S.!
!
17. What!is!the!highest!education!level!in!the!household!where!you!were!raised?!
a. Some!high!school!
b. High!school!graduate!
c. Some!college!and/or!vocational!training!
d. Associate’s!degree!(AA,!AS)!
e. Bachelor’s!degree!(BA,!BS)!
f. Master’s!degree!(MA,!MS,!MBA)!
g. Professional!degree!(MD,!OD,!etc.)!
h. Doctorate!degree!(PhD)
!
18. What!is!the!annual!income!in!the!household!where!you!were!raised?
a. Less!than!$25,000!
b. $25,000!to!$64,999!
c. $65,000!to!99,999!
d. $100,000!to!149,999!
e. Greater!than!$150,00
