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Introductory Course On Public Speaking

This document provides an overview of the key concepts from a textbook on public speaking. It covers selecting speech topics, researching topics, supporting speeches with different types of materials, analyzing audiences, responding to speeches as a listener, ethics in public speaking, and outlining and delivering speeches. The document excerpts multiple chapters that define important terminology and concepts for crafting and analyzing effective speeches.

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1: An Introduction to Public Speaking 2: The Ethics of Public Speaking 3: Speaking Confidently 4: Responding to Speeches 5: Analyzing your Audience 6: Selecting your Topic
7: Researching Your Topic   8: Supporting Your Speech   9: Organizing the Body of Your Speech  10: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech  11: Outlining Your Speech   12: Wording Your Speech 
13: Delivering Your Speech  14: Using Presentational Aids  15: Speaking to Inform  16: The Strategy of Persuasion   17: The Structure of Persuasion   18: Speaking on Special Occasions   19: Speaking in and as a Group
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Public Speaking
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Public Speaking
Studying Public Speaking. . . . . . Helps you succeed in school / at work. . . . Increases your knowledge. . . . Helps build your confidence.
We Remember. . . 10 percent of what we read , 20 percent of what we hear , 30 percent of what we see , and 70 percent of what we speak . Cited in William E. Arnold and Lynne McClure, Communication Training and Development , 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1996) 38.
Levels of Communication Intrapersonal Interpersonal Group Public Mass
Communication Elements Model
Critical Thinking Skills enables you to. . . This skill. . . Arrange information Organizing Store and retrieve information Remembering Formulate questions, collect data Information Gathering Define problems, set goals, select information Focusing
Critical Thinking Skills cont. Adapted from Robert J. Marzano, Ronald S. Brandt, Carolyn Sue Hughes, Beau Fly Jones, Barbara Z. Presseisen, Stuart C. Rankin, and Charles Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1988) 66, 70-112. Copyright 1988 by ACSD. Reprinted with permission of the publishers. enables you to. . . This skill. . . Assess the quality of ideas Evaluating Combine, summarize, and restructure information Integrating Use prior knowledge Generating Clarify existing information Analyzing
Chapter 2 The Ethics of Public Speaking
Principles of Ethics All parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
Responsibilities of an Ethical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
“ Fair Use” Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original ? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials , 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
Chapter 2 The Ethics of Public Speaking
Principles of Ethics All parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
Responsibilities of an Ethical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
“ Fair Use” Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original ? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials , 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
Tips to Avoid Plagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
Chapter 4 Responding to Speeches
Listening . . . is intermittent . . . . is a learned skill . . . . is active . . . . implies using the message received .
The Process of Listening You get the stimuli You focus on stimuli You attach meanings to stimuli You integrate the message into your frame of reference You judge the merits of the information You decide what to do with the information Receive Select Interpret Understand Evaluate Resolve
Obstacles to Effective Listening Physical distractions Physiological distractions Psychological distractions Factual distractions Semantic distractions
Promoting Better Listening Desire to listen. Focus on the message. Listen for main ideas. Understand the speaker’s point of view.
Promoting Better Listening cont. Withhold judgment. Reinforce the message. Provide feedback. Listen with the body. Listen critically.
A Model of Criticism This model of criticism is adapted from Beverly Whitaker Long, “Evaluating Performed Literature,” Studies in Interpretation , vol.2, eds. Esther M. Doyle and Virginia Hastings Floyd (Amsterdam: Podopi, 1977) 267-81. See also her earlier article: Beverly Whitaker, “Critical Reasons and Literature in Performance,” The Speech Teacher 18 (November 1969): 191-93. Long attributes this three-part model of criticism to Arnold Isenberg, “Critical Communication,” The Philosophical Review (July 1949): 330-44. Judgments: statements of approval or disapproval, like or dislike Reasons: Justifications offered for judgments Norms: Standards of relative worth or goodness
Guidelines for Critiquing Speeches Begin with a positive statement. Target a few key areas for improvement. Organize your comments. Be specific. Be honest but tactful.
Guidelines for Critiquing Speeches cont. Personalize your comments. Reinforce the positive. Problem-solve the negative. Provide the speaker with a plan of action. End with a positive statement.
Guidelines for Acting on Criticism Focus on what your critics say, not how they say it. Seek clear and specific feedback. Evaluate the feedback you receive. Develop a plan of action.
Chapter 5 Analyzing Your Audience
Audience Demographics Age Gender Ethnicity Education Religion Economic Status Group Membership
Levels of Influence Behavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality , 2 nd ed. (New York: Random, 1970) 35-47. Self-Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Belonging and Love Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs
VALS Typology Survivors Makers Strivers Believers Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
VALS Typology cont. Experiencers Achievers Thinkers Innovators Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
Specific Speaking Situations Types of audiences Audience disposition Size of audience Occasion Physical environment Time
Chapter 6 Selecting Your Speech Topic This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.
Choosing Your Speech Topic You should. . . First, generate a list : Self-generated Audience-generated Occasion-generated Research-generated
Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Second, select a topic . Am I interested? Is the topic important? Can I find supporting material? Do I understand the topic? Third, focus the topic .
Visual Brainstorming
Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Fourth, determine the general purpose . To inform To persuade To entertain
Choosing Your Speech Topic cont. Fifth, formulate your specific purpose . General purpose Intended audience Goal of your speech Finally, word your thesis statement . If necessary, develop your speech title .
Chapter 7 Researching Your Topic
Assess Your Personal Knowledge Article file Quotation file Speech file
Develop Your Research Plan What information do I need? Where am I most likely to find it? How do I obtain this information? What about time constraints?
Collect Your Information Magazines and journals Newspapers Government documents Books
Collect Your Information cont. Reference works Television and radio World Wide Web Interviews Calling, writing, e-mailing for info
Record Your Information What to record How to record information
Conclude Your Search “ If the last 10 percent of your planned research time has brought excellent results, you are doubtless on a productive new track and should extend the project. But if the last 25 percent of your scheduled time has brought greatly diminished results, this fact is a signal to wind up your research.” Alden Todd, Finding Facts Fast , 2 nd ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed, 1979) 14.
Chapter 8 Supporting Your Speech
Purposes of Supporting Materials Clarity Vividness Credibility
Types of Supporting Materials
Examples Brief Extended Actual Hypothetical
Definition Synonym Etymology Example Operation
Narration Personal Third-person
Comparison and Contrast Literal Figurative
Statistics Don’t rely exclusively on statistics. Round off. Use familiar measures. Use presentational aids. Stress their impact.
Testimony Direct quotation Paraphrase
Tests of Evidence Is the evidence quoted in context ? Is the source of the evidence an expert ? Is the source of the evidence unbiased ? Is the evidence relevant to the point? Is the evidence specific ? Is the evidence sufficient to prove the point? Is the evidence timely ?
Evaluating Electronic Information Purpose Expertise Objectivity Accuracy Timeliness This checklist was adapted from Serena Fenton and Grace Reposa, “Evaluating the Goods,” Technology & Learning Sept. 1998: 28-32; Caroline L. Gilson, “Evaluating Information Resources,” 3 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 < http://lib.runet.edu/hguide/Evaluating.html >; Esther Grassian, “Thinking Critically About World Wide Web Resources,” 10 Oct. 1997, UCLA College Library, 10 March 1999 < http:// www.accd.edu/SAC/LRC/gis/critical.htm >; Stephanie Michel, “Evaluating Information on the World Wide Web,” 9 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 < http://lib.runet.edu/libserv/handout/evaluation.html >; Keith Stranger, “Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources,” 30 Nov. 1998, University Library, Eastern Michigan Univ., 4 March 1999 < http:// online.emich.edu/~lib_stanger/ineteval.htm >.
Citing Your Sources “ Oral footnotes”. . . Enhance the credibility of what you say. Help listeners find sources.
Chapter 9 Organizing the Body of Your Speech
Organizational Patterns Topical Chronological Spatial Causal Pro-con Mnemonic or gimmick Problem-solution Need-plan
The “4 S” Strategy S ignpost S tate S upport S ummarize
Connect the Key Ideas Complementary Causal Contrasting Chronological
Chapter 10 Introducing and Concluding Your Speech
Organize the Introduction First, get your audience’s attention . Question your audience. Arouse curiosity. Stimulate imagination. Promise something beneficial. Amuse your audience. Energize your audience. Acknowledge and compliment.
Organize the Introduction cont . Second, state your topic . Third, establish the importance of your topic. Fourth, establish your credibility . Finally, preview your key ideas.
Organize the Conclusion Summarize your key ideas. Activate audience response to your speech. Provide closure .
Chapter 11 Outlining Your Speech
An Outline. . . Tests the scope of content. Tests the logical relations of the speech. Tests the relevance of supporting ideas. Checks the balance of the speech. Serves as notes during delivery.
Principles of Outlining Singularity Consistency Adequacy Uniformity Parallelism
Stages of Outlining Working Outline Formal Outline Speaking Outline
Chapter 12 Wording Your Speech
Functions of Language Communicate ideas. Send messages about the user. Strengthen social bonds. Serve as instrument of play. Check language use. Based on Roman Jakobson, “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetic,” in Style in Language , ed. Thomas A. Sebok (Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1964) 350-74.
Use Language Correctly “ Stronger English comes from making stronger choices, and exact wording, when it becomes a habit, can become fun as well as fascinating.” --Jeffrey McQuain
Use Language Clearly Use specific language. Use familiar language.
Use Language Vividly Use active language . Appeal to listeners’ senses . Use figures of speech . Use structures of speech .
Use Language Appropriately Use oral style. Use inclusive language.
Chapter 13 Delivering Your Speech
Principles of Nonverbal Communication Some communication is deliberate, while some is unintentional. Few nonverbal signals have universal meaning.
Principles of Nonverbal Communication cont. When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, we trust the nonverbal message. The audience’s perception can take precedence over your intent.
Methods of Delivery Impromptu From memory From a manuscript Extemporaneous
Effective Delivery. . . Helps everyone. Looks and feels natural, comfortable, and spontaneous. Is best when the audience is not aware of it.
Elements of Vocal Delivery Rate and pause Volume Pitch and inflection Voice quality Articulation and pronunciation
Elements of Physical Delivery Appearance Posture Facial expression Eye contact Movement Gestures
Chapter 14 Using Presentational Aids
Presentational Aids Increase message clarity . Reinforce message impact . Increase speaker dynamism . Enhance speaker confidence .
Types of Presentational Aids Objects Graphics Picture Diagram Line Graph Bar Graph Pie Graph Chart Map
Types of Presentational Aids cont. Projections Still Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Using Presentational Aids Before the speech . . . Determine information to be presented. Select the best type of aid. Ensure easy viewing by audience. Make sure information is clear. Construct professional-looking aid.
Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont . . . Practice with aid. Arrange for safe transportation. Carry back-up supplies. Properly position aid. Test presentational aid.
Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech. . . Conceal, then reveal. Talk to audience—not aid. Refer to aid. Keep aid in view. Conceal aid after you have used it. Use handouts with caution.
Chapter 14 Using Presentational Aids
Presentational Aids Increase message clarity . Reinforce message impact . Increase speaker dynamism . Enhance speaker confidence .
Types of Presentational Aids Objects Graphics Picture Diagram Line Graph Bar Graph Pie Graph Chart Map
Types of Presentational Aids cont. Projections Still Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Using Presentational Aids Before the speech . . . Determine information to be presented. Select the best type of aid. Ensure easy viewing by audience. Make sure information is clear. Construct professional-looking aid.
Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont . . . Practice with aid. Arrange for safe transportation. Carry back-up supplies. Properly position aid. Test presentational aid.
Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech. . . Conceal, then reveal. Talk to audience—not aid. Refer to aid. Keep aid in view. Conceal aid after you have used it. Use handouts with caution.
Designing Presentational Aids Focus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform
Purposes of Informative Speeches Impart knowledge Enhance understanding Permit application
Topic Categories for Informative Speeches People Objects Places Events
Topic Categories for Informative Speeches cont. Processes Concepts Conditions Issues
Speaking to Inform Stress informative purpose. Be specific. Be clear. Be accurate. Limit ideas and supporting materials.
Speaking to Inform cont. Be relevant. Be objective. Use appropriate organization. Use appropriate forms of support. Use effective delivery.
Chapter 16 The Strategy of Persuasion
Persuasion is. . . the process of influencing another person’s values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Types of Influence Oppose Neutral Favor Strongly Moderately Slightly Slightly Moderately Strongly --- -- - + ++ +++ 0
The Pyramid of Persuasion Behavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
Types of Persuasive Speeches Speeches to Convince Speeches to Actuate Speeches to Inspire
Three Modes of Persuasion Ethos : Speaker credibility Logos : Logical appeal Pathos : Emotional appeal The Rhetoric of Aristotle , trans. Lane Cooper (New York: Appleton, 1960) 8.
Persuasive Speaking Strategies. . .
Persuasive Strategies Establish your credibility. Convey competence . Convey trustworthiness . Convey dynamism .
Persuasive Strategies cont. 2. Focus your goals. Limit your goals. Argue incrementally.
Persuasive Strategies cont. 3. Connect with your listeners. Assess listeners’ knowledge of topic. Assess importance to audience. Motivate your listeners. Relate message to listeners’ values.
Persuasive Strategies cont. 4. Organize your arguments. Primacy theory. Recency theory.
Persuasive Strategies cont. 5. Support your ideas. 6. Enhance your emotional appeals. Tap audience values. Use vivid examples. Use emotive language. Use effective delivery.
Chapter 17 The Structure of Persuasion
Steps of an Argument You make a claim . You offer evidence . You show how the evidence proves the claim. For a more elaborate discussion of the structure of an argument, see Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge UP, 1974).
Refuting an Argument State the position you are refuting. State your position. Support your position. Show how your position undermines the opposing argument.
Types of Argument
Argument by Example Are the examples true ? Are the examples relevant ? Are the examples sufficient ? Are the examples representative ?
Argument by Analogy Are the similarities between cases relevant? Are any of the differences relevant?
Argument by Cause Does a causal relationship exist? Could the presumed cause produce the effect ? Could the effect result from other causes?
Argument by Deduction Do the premises relate to each other? Is the major premise true? Is the minor premise true?
Argument by Authority Is the source an expert ? Is the source unbiased ?
Fallacies of Argument Hasty generalization False analogy Post hoc ergo propter hoc Slippery slope Red herring
Fallacies of Argument cont. Appeal to tradition False dilemma False authority Bandwagon Ad hominem
Requirements of Propositions Propositions. . . Express a judgment. Are debatable. Require proof.
Types of Propositions Propositions of Fact Propositions of Value Propositions of Policy
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Attention Need Satisfaction Visualization Action Raymie E. Mckerrow, Bruce E. Gronbeck, Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech Communication , 14 th ed. (New York: Addison-Longman, 2000) 153-161. See also: Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Chicago: Scott, 1935).
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public non educational performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

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Introductory Course On Public Speaking

  • 1.
  • 2.
    1: AnIntroduction to Public Speaking 2: The Ethics of Public Speaking 3: Speaking Confidently 4: Responding to Speeches 5: Analyzing your Audience 6: Selecting your Topic
  • 3.
    7: Researching YourTopic   8: Supporting Your Speech   9: Organizing the Body of Your Speech  10: Introducing and Concluding Your Speech  11: Outlining Your Speech   12: Wording Your Speech 
  • 4.
    13: Delivering YourSpeech  14: Using Presentational Aids  15: Speaking to Inform  16: The Strategy of Persuasion   17: The Structure of Persuasion   18: Speaking on Special Occasions   19: Speaking in and as a Group
  • 5.
    Chapter 1 AnIntroduction to Public Speaking
  • 6.
    Chapter 1 AnIntroduction to Public Speaking
  • 7.
    Studying Public Speaking.. . . . . Helps you succeed in school / at work. . . . Increases your knowledge. . . . Helps build your confidence.
  • 8.
    We Remember. .. 10 percent of what we read , 20 percent of what we hear , 30 percent of what we see , and 70 percent of what we speak . Cited in William E. Arnold and Lynne McClure, Communication Training and Development , 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1996) 38.
  • 9.
    Levels of CommunicationIntrapersonal Interpersonal Group Public Mass
  • 10.
  • 11.
    Critical Thinking Skillsenables you to. . . This skill. . . Arrange information Organizing Store and retrieve information Remembering Formulate questions, collect data Information Gathering Define problems, set goals, select information Focusing
  • 12.
    Critical Thinking Skills cont. Adapted from Robert J. Marzano, Ronald S. Brandt, Carolyn Sue Hughes, Beau Fly Jones, Barbara Z. Presseisen, Stuart C. Rankin, and Charles Suhor, Dimensions of Thinking: A Framework for Curriculum and Instruction (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1988) 66, 70-112. Copyright 1988 by ACSD. Reprinted with permission of the publishers. enables you to. . . This skill. . . Assess the quality of ideas Evaluating Combine, summarize, and restructure information Integrating Use prior knowledge Generating Clarify existing information Analyzing
  • 13.
    Chapter 2 TheEthics of Public Speaking
  • 14.
    Principles of EthicsAll parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
  • 15.
    Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
  • 16.
    Responsibilities of anEthical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
  • 17.
    “ Fair Use”Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original ? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials , 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
  • 18.
    Tips to AvoidPlagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
  • 19.
    Chapter 2 TheEthics of Public Speaking
  • 20.
    Principles of EthicsAll parties have ethical responsibilities. Ethics pervade character and action.
  • 21.
    Responsibilities of an Ethical Speaker Speak up about important issues. Promote positive ethical values. Speak to benefit your listeners. Use truthful support and valid reasoning. Consider the consequences. Strive to improve your speaking.
  • 22.
    Responsibilities of anEthical Listener Seek exposure to well-informed speakers. Listen openly. Listen critically. Listen carefully.
  • 23.
    “ Fair Use”Guidelines What is the character of the use I plan? What is the nature of the work I plan to use? How much of the work do I plan to use? If the use I plan were widespread, what effect would it have on the market value of the original ? Georgia Harper, “Using the Four Factor Fair Use Test,” Fair Use of Copyrighted Materials , 5 Jan. 1998, U of Texas, Austin, 6 July 1999 < http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm>.
  • 24.
    Tips to AvoidPlagiarizing Take clear and consistent notes. Record complete source citations. Be clear in source citations. Paraphrase in your own words, style, and structure. When in doubt, cite the source.
  • 25.
  • 26.
    Listening . .. is intermittent . . . . is a learned skill . . . . is active . . . . implies using the message received .
  • 27.
    The Process ofListening You get the stimuli You focus on stimuli You attach meanings to stimuli You integrate the message into your frame of reference You judge the merits of the information You decide what to do with the information Receive Select Interpret Understand Evaluate Resolve
  • 28.
    Obstacles to EffectiveListening Physical distractions Physiological distractions Psychological distractions Factual distractions Semantic distractions
  • 29.
    Promoting Better ListeningDesire to listen. Focus on the message. Listen for main ideas. Understand the speaker’s point of view.
  • 30.
    Promoting Better Listening cont. Withhold judgment. Reinforce the message. Provide feedback. Listen with the body. Listen critically.
  • 31.
    A Model ofCriticism This model of criticism is adapted from Beverly Whitaker Long, “Evaluating Performed Literature,” Studies in Interpretation , vol.2, eds. Esther M. Doyle and Virginia Hastings Floyd (Amsterdam: Podopi, 1977) 267-81. See also her earlier article: Beverly Whitaker, “Critical Reasons and Literature in Performance,” The Speech Teacher 18 (November 1969): 191-93. Long attributes this three-part model of criticism to Arnold Isenberg, “Critical Communication,” The Philosophical Review (July 1949): 330-44. Judgments: statements of approval or disapproval, like or dislike Reasons: Justifications offered for judgments Norms: Standards of relative worth or goodness
  • 32.
    Guidelines for CritiquingSpeeches Begin with a positive statement. Target a few key areas for improvement. Organize your comments. Be specific. Be honest but tactful.
  • 33.
    Guidelines for CritiquingSpeeches cont. Personalize your comments. Reinforce the positive. Problem-solve the negative. Provide the speaker with a plan of action. End with a positive statement.
  • 34.
    Guidelines for Actingon Criticism Focus on what your critics say, not how they say it. Seek clear and specific feedback. Evaluate the feedback you receive. Develop a plan of action.
  • 35.
    Chapter 5 AnalyzingYour Audience
  • 36.
    Audience Demographics AgeGender Ethnicity Education Religion Economic Status Group Membership
  • 37.
    Levels of InfluenceBehavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
  • 38.
    Maslow’s Hierarchy ofNeeds Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality , 2 nd ed. (New York: Random, 1970) 35-47. Self-Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Belonging and Love Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs
  • 39.
    VALS Typology SurvivorsMakers Strivers Believers Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
  • 40.
    VALS Typology cont. Experiencers Achievers Thinkers Innovators Descriptions of categories are adapted from the VALS Segment Profiles, 1997, Stanford Research Institute, 12 June 1999 < http://www.future.sri.com/vals.segs.html>.
  • 41.
    Specific Speaking SituationsTypes of audiences Audience disposition Size of audience Occasion Physical environment Time
  • 42.
    Chapter 6 SelectingYour Speech Topic This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.
  • 43.
    Choosing Your SpeechTopic You should. . . First, generate a list : Self-generated Audience-generated Occasion-generated Research-generated
  • 44.
    Choosing Your SpeechTopic cont. Second, select a topic . Am I interested? Is the topic important? Can I find supporting material? Do I understand the topic? Third, focus the topic .
  • 45.
  • 46.
    Choosing Your SpeechTopic cont. Fourth, determine the general purpose . To inform To persuade To entertain
  • 47.
    Choosing Your SpeechTopic cont. Fifth, formulate your specific purpose . General purpose Intended audience Goal of your speech Finally, word your thesis statement . If necessary, develop your speech title .
  • 48.
  • 49.
    Assess Your PersonalKnowledge Article file Quotation file Speech file
  • 50.
    Develop Your ResearchPlan What information do I need? Where am I most likely to find it? How do I obtain this information? What about time constraints?
  • 51.
    Collect Your InformationMagazines and journals Newspapers Government documents Books
  • 52.
    Collect Your Information cont. Reference works Television and radio World Wide Web Interviews Calling, writing, e-mailing for info
  • 53.
    Record Your InformationWhat to record How to record information
  • 54.
    Conclude Your Search“ If the last 10 percent of your planned research time has brought excellent results, you are doubtless on a productive new track and should extend the project. But if the last 25 percent of your scheduled time has brought greatly diminished results, this fact is a signal to wind up your research.” Alden Todd, Finding Facts Fast , 2 nd ed. (Berkeley: Ten Speed, 1979) 14.
  • 55.
  • 56.
    Purposes of SupportingMaterials Clarity Vividness Credibility
  • 57.
  • 58.
    Examples Brief ExtendedActual Hypothetical
  • 59.
  • 60.
  • 61.
    Comparison and ContrastLiteral Figurative
  • 62.
    Statistics Don’t relyexclusively on statistics. Round off. Use familiar measures. Use presentational aids. Stress their impact.
  • 63.
  • 64.
    Tests of EvidenceIs the evidence quoted in context ? Is the source of the evidence an expert ? Is the source of the evidence unbiased ? Is the evidence relevant to the point? Is the evidence specific ? Is the evidence sufficient to prove the point? Is the evidence timely ?
  • 65.
    Evaluating Electronic InformationPurpose Expertise Objectivity Accuracy Timeliness This checklist was adapted from Serena Fenton and Grace Reposa, “Evaluating the Goods,” Technology & Learning Sept. 1998: 28-32; Caroline L. Gilson, “Evaluating Information Resources,” 3 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 < http://lib.runet.edu/hguide/Evaluating.html >; Esther Grassian, “Thinking Critically About World Wide Web Resources,” 10 Oct. 1997, UCLA College Library, 10 March 1999 < http:// www.accd.edu/SAC/LRC/gis/critical.htm >; Stephanie Michel, “Evaluating Information on the World Wide Web,” 9 June 1999, McConnell Library, Radford Univ., 2 July 1999 < http://lib.runet.edu/libserv/handout/evaluation.html >; Keith Stranger, “Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources,” 30 Nov. 1998, University Library, Eastern Michigan Univ., 4 March 1999 < http:// online.emich.edu/~lib_stanger/ineteval.htm >.
  • 66.
    Citing Your Sources“ Oral footnotes”. . . Enhance the credibility of what you say. Help listeners find sources.
  • 67.
    Chapter 9 Organizingthe Body of Your Speech
  • 68.
    Organizational Patterns TopicalChronological Spatial Causal Pro-con Mnemonic or gimmick Problem-solution Need-plan
  • 69.
    The “4 S”Strategy S ignpost S tate S upport S ummarize
  • 70.
    Connect the KeyIdeas Complementary Causal Contrasting Chronological
  • 71.
    Chapter 10 Introducingand Concluding Your Speech
  • 72.
    Organize the IntroductionFirst, get your audience’s attention . Question your audience. Arouse curiosity. Stimulate imagination. Promise something beneficial. Amuse your audience. Energize your audience. Acknowledge and compliment.
  • 73.
    Organize the Introduction cont . Second, state your topic . Third, establish the importance of your topic. Fourth, establish your credibility . Finally, preview your key ideas.
  • 74.
    Organize the ConclusionSummarize your key ideas. Activate audience response to your speech. Provide closure .
  • 75.
  • 76.
    An Outline. .. Tests the scope of content. Tests the logical relations of the speech. Tests the relevance of supporting ideas. Checks the balance of the speech. Serves as notes during delivery.
  • 77.
    Principles of OutliningSingularity Consistency Adequacy Uniformity Parallelism
  • 78.
    Stages of OutliningWorking Outline Formal Outline Speaking Outline
  • 79.
    Chapter 12 WordingYour Speech
  • 80.
    Functions of LanguageCommunicate ideas. Send messages about the user. Strengthen social bonds. Serve as instrument of play. Check language use. Based on Roman Jakobson, “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetic,” in Style in Language , ed. Thomas A. Sebok (Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1964) 350-74.
  • 81.
    Use Language Correctly “ Stronger English comes from making stronger choices, and exact wording, when it becomes a habit, can become fun as well as fascinating.” --Jeffrey McQuain
  • 82.
    Use Language Clearly Use specific language. Use familiar language.
  • 83.
    Use Language Vividly Use active language . Appeal to listeners’ senses . Use figures of speech . Use structures of speech .
  • 84.
    Use Language Appropriately Use oral style. Use inclusive language.
  • 85.
  • 86.
    Principles of NonverbalCommunication Some communication is deliberate, while some is unintentional. Few nonverbal signals have universal meaning.
  • 87.
    Principles of NonverbalCommunication cont. When verbal and nonverbal messages conflict, we trust the nonverbal message. The audience’s perception can take precedence over your intent.
  • 88.
    Methods of DeliveryImpromptu From memory From a manuscript Extemporaneous
  • 89.
    Effective Delivery. .. Helps everyone. Looks and feels natural, comfortable, and spontaneous. Is best when the audience is not aware of it.
  • 90.
    Elements of VocalDelivery Rate and pause Volume Pitch and inflection Voice quality Articulation and pronunciation
  • 91.
    Elements of PhysicalDelivery Appearance Posture Facial expression Eye contact Movement Gestures
  • 92.
    Chapter 14 UsingPresentational Aids
  • 93.
    Presentational Aids Increasemessage clarity . Reinforce message impact . Increase speaker dynamism . Enhance speaker confidence .
  • 94.
    Types of PresentationalAids Objects Graphics Picture Diagram Line Graph Bar Graph Pie Graph Chart Map
  • 95.
    Types of PresentationalAids cont. Projections Still Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
  • 96.
    Designing Presentational AidsFocus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
  • 97.
    Using Presentational AidsBefore the speech . . . Determine information to be presented. Select the best type of aid. Ensure easy viewing by audience. Make sure information is clear. Construct professional-looking aid.
  • 98.
    Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont . . . Practice with aid. Arrange for safe transportation. Carry back-up supplies. Properly position aid. Test presentational aid.
  • 99.
    Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech. . . Conceal, then reveal. Talk to audience—not aid. Refer to aid. Keep aid in view. Conceal aid after you have used it. Use handouts with caution.
  • 100.
    Chapter 14 UsingPresentational Aids
  • 101.
    Presentational Aids Increasemessage clarity . Reinforce message impact . Increase speaker dynamism . Enhance speaker confidence .
  • 102.
    Types of PresentationalAids Objects Graphics Picture Diagram Line Graph Bar Graph Pie Graph Chart Map
  • 103.
    Types of PresentationalAids cont. Projections Still Moving Electronic aids Handouts Audio and other aids
  • 104.
    Designing Presentational AidsFocus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
  • 105.
    Using Presentational AidsBefore the speech . . . Determine information to be presented. Select the best type of aid. Ensure easy viewing by audience. Make sure information is clear. Construct professional-looking aid.
  • 106.
    Using Presentational Aids cont. Before the speech cont . . . Practice with aid. Arrange for safe transportation. Carry back-up supplies. Properly position aid. Test presentational aid.
  • 107.
    Using Presentational Aids cont. During the Speech. . . Conceal, then reveal. Talk to audience—not aid. Refer to aid. Keep aid in view. Conceal aid after you have used it. Use handouts with caution.
  • 108.
    Designing Presentational AidsFocus Layout Highlighting Fonts Color and art
  • 109.
  • 110.
    Purposes of InformativeSpeeches Impart knowledge Enhance understanding Permit application
  • 111.
    Topic Categories forInformative Speeches People Objects Places Events
  • 112.
    Topic Categories forInformative Speeches cont. Processes Concepts Conditions Issues
  • 113.
    Speaking to InformStress informative purpose. Be specific. Be clear. Be accurate. Limit ideas and supporting materials.
  • 114.
    Speaking to Inform cont. Be relevant. Be objective. Use appropriate organization. Use appropriate forms of support. Use effective delivery.
  • 115.
    Chapter 16 TheStrategy of Persuasion
  • 116.
    Persuasion is. .. the process of influencing another person’s values, beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
  • 117.
    Types of InfluenceOppose Neutral Favor Strongly Moderately Slightly Slightly Moderately Strongly --- -- - + ++ +++ 0
  • 118.
    The Pyramid ofPersuasion Behavior Attitudes Beliefs Values
  • 119.
    Types of PersuasiveSpeeches Speeches to Convince Speeches to Actuate Speeches to Inspire
  • 120.
    Three Modes ofPersuasion Ethos : Speaker credibility Logos : Logical appeal Pathos : Emotional appeal The Rhetoric of Aristotle , trans. Lane Cooper (New York: Appleton, 1960) 8.
  • 121.
  • 122.
    Persuasive Strategies Establishyour credibility. Convey competence . Convey trustworthiness . Convey dynamism .
  • 123.
    Persuasive Strategies cont. 2. Focus your goals. Limit your goals. Argue incrementally.
  • 124.
    Persuasive Strategies cont. 3. Connect with your listeners. Assess listeners’ knowledge of topic. Assess importance to audience. Motivate your listeners. Relate message to listeners’ values.
  • 125.
    Persuasive Strategies cont. 4. Organize your arguments. Primacy theory. Recency theory.
  • 126.
    Persuasive Strategies cont. 5. Support your ideas. 6. Enhance your emotional appeals. Tap audience values. Use vivid examples. Use emotive language. Use effective delivery.
  • 127.
    Chapter 17 TheStructure of Persuasion
  • 128.
    Steps of anArgument You make a claim . You offer evidence . You show how the evidence proves the claim. For a more elaborate discussion of the structure of an argument, see Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (New York: Cambridge UP, 1974).
  • 129.
    Refuting an ArgumentState the position you are refuting. State your position. Support your position. Show how your position undermines the opposing argument.
  • 130.
  • 131.
    Argument by ExampleAre the examples true ? Are the examples relevant ? Are the examples sufficient ? Are the examples representative ?
  • 132.
    Argument by AnalogyAre the similarities between cases relevant? Are any of the differences relevant?
  • 133.
    Argument by CauseDoes a causal relationship exist? Could the presumed cause produce the effect ? Could the effect result from other causes?
  • 134.
    Argument by DeductionDo the premises relate to each other? Is the major premise true? Is the minor premise true?
  • 135.
    Argument by AuthorityIs the source an expert ? Is the source unbiased ?
  • 136.
    Fallacies of ArgumentHasty generalization False analogy Post hoc ergo propter hoc Slippery slope Red herring
  • 137.
    Fallacies of Argument cont. Appeal to tradition False dilemma False authority Bandwagon Ad hominem
  • 138.
    Requirements of PropositionsPropositions. . . Express a judgment. Are debatable. Require proof.
  • 139.
    Types of PropositionsPropositions of Fact Propositions of Value Propositions of Policy
  • 140.
    Monroe’s Motivated SequenceAttention Need Satisfaction Visualization Action Raymie E. Mckerrow, Bruce E. Gronbeck, Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech Communication , 14 th ed. (New York: Addison-Longman, 2000) 153-161. See also: Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Chicago: Scott, 1935).
  • 141.
    This multimedia productand its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public non educational performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.