Public finance studies the role of the government in the economy. It is the definitive
branch of Economics which assesses the government revenue and government
expenditure of the public authorities and the adjustment of one or the other to achieve
desirable effects and avoid undesirable ones. Public finance is a subject which has the
distinction of intimate interaction between theory and practice.
2. Administrative Stuff
Use of WebCT
Any problems so far?
Organization of course
Each session = 4 weeks, with corresponding number
of readings
Syllabus is rough guide only
Not all reading materials will be covered in lecture,
but all should be read carefully
Group projects
Homework assignments due by following session
Take home final due week after course
3. Objectives of the course
Survey the dominant theories in budgeting and finance,
compare practice and trends
Learn how to strategically plan a budget, how to manage
ongoing activities, and how to control spending;
Understand the role of public organizations in a market
economy
Understand social security, public health and other major
categories of public expenditure
Understand the theory and practice of the redistribution
of wealth and resources
Understand the impact of taxes on social welfare.
Learn from practitioners in the field.
4. What is Public Budgeting?
How governments strategically plan a
budget
Manage ongoing activities
Control spending
5. What is Public Finance?
The study of how governments collect and
spend money and real resources
How do governments collect/spend
money? Positive analysis
How should governments collect/spend
money? Normative analysis
We are studying public finance in a market
economy
6. What is the Role of Government?
To maintain and improve the welfare of
the people
To protect the people from harm
To provide the institutions that allow market
to function (e.g. protection of property rights)
To provide the essential goods and services
that markets fail to adequately provide
8. Current Trends
Reagan tax cuts
Shrink government “down to the size
where we can drown it in a bathtub”
Grover Norquist
“The era of big government is over”
Bill Clinton
Bush tax cuts
Free market ideology
9. Organic view of government
Society is a natural organism
Goals of society set by state
Actions of individual are judged by the
contribution they make to the state
“Ask not what your country can do for
you; ask what you can do for your
country.”
10. Mechanistic view of government
Individuals are paramount, government
created to meet the needs of individuals
Big debate over importance of individual
freedom
Two types of freedom:
Freedom to do as you like
Freedom not to suffer from activities of others
As society grows more crowded, second type
of freedom becomes more important
11. The Role of Government: Objective Analysis
Complexity theory and systems thinking
Government in a market economy
12. Complexity theory and
Systems thinking
Bringing together many, many simple
components leads to emergence of spontaneous
order, complex system:
2 H and 1 0 atoms form water molecule, molecules
form cell, cells form organs, organs make up humans,
humans make up society
Complex systems greater than the sum of their
parts
Characterized by non-linearities, feedback loops,
emergent properties, unpredictable surprises,
etc.
Government is a complex system
13. Government in a market economy
Economics is the allocation of scarce resources
among alternative desirable ends
What are the desirable ends?
To maintain and improve the welfare of the people
Government and economics have the same desirable ends
What are the scarce resources?
What are the characteristics of the scarce resources?
Whether resources should be allocated by
government or the market depends on the physical
nature of the scarce resources
Once we agree on the desirable ends, deciding on the
role of government moves towards objective science
and away from ideology.
15. Federal Government: Expenditure
Constitution empowers government to
“pay the debts and provide for the
common defense and general welfare of
the United States.”
Bills to appropriate expenditures can be
initiated in either house, must be
approved by both houses and President
16. Federal Government: Revenue
Duties, imposts and excises must be
uniform throughout US
Constitutional amendment (16th) required
for federal income tax
5th amendment– can’t take away property
without due process of law, compensation
required
Can’t tax articles exported from states
Empowered to borrow money
17. State and local governments
States have power not explicitly relegated
to federal government
Can’t impose duties on imports or exports
Power of local governments granted by
states
19. Historical context
What was the highest
marginal tax rate
Under Eisenhower?
•Under Kennedy?
•Today?
•Highest tax bracket currently applies to single people earning $54,000/yr
22. How does size of US government
compare with other countries (2001)?
USA 29.3% of GDP
Australia 31%
Canada 37.4%
Japan 38.3%
UK 38.8%
France 49.4%
Sweden 53.1%
23. How does the federal government
spend its money?
24. How do state governments spend
money?
Miscellaneous (~43%, +)
Education (~35%, -)
Public welfare (~17%, +)
Highways (~5%, -)
25. Where does the government get its
money?
Federal
Individual income tax
(+)
Social insurance (++)
Corporate tax (--)
Other (-)
State and local
Other (+)
Sales tax
Grants from federal
government (+)
Property tax (-)
Individual income tax
(+)
Corporation tax
26. How do we Objectively Measure
Government Performance?
27. Role of Theory
Observe, form hypotheses
Test hypotheses through continued
observation, measurement and
experiments
Confirm hypotheses repeatedly and you
have theory
Reject hypotheses and you’re back to the
drawing board
Theory tells us what questions to test
28. If we fail to test our theories and
their assumptions, or continue
to believe them when they fail
the tests, they become
ideology, not theory
29. Neoclassical Economic Theory
Assumes humans are rational, self interested
utility maximizers
Empirical studies reject this
Assumes perfect market competition
Empirical studies reject this
Assumes in perfect markets invisible hand leads
to efficient allocation: greatest good for greatest
number
Can’t be tested in practice, because
governments always intervene with perfect
functioning of market
30. Ecological Economic Theory
Assume economy is subset of ecosystem
Ecologically sustainable scale is first
priority
Socially just distribution 2nd
Efficient allocation 3rd
31. Georgist Economic Theory
Ownership of land leads to poverty
Value of land is created by nature and
society, not hard work of individual
Land tax could finance all government
expenditure, prevent land speculation and
concentration of ownership, end poverty
Land tax could be extended to include all
value created by nature and society
32. Empirical methods for Testing
theories
Interviews
Subjective, hard to interpret
Experiments
Ethical issues, self selection, etc.
Sample size
Econometrics (statistics)
Torture the data and it will confess
Theories can be very hard to test
33. Measurement in a complex system
Very hard to isolate cause and effect
E.g. feedback loops
Rarely have adequate baseline data
Systems evolve over time
Values matter
34. How do we normatively measure
government Performance?
35. Why do we need normative
measures?
We need some way to measure social
welfare, and choose between alternative
states
Economic theory provides some guidelines
Theory can be very incomplete
Different theories make different ethical
assumptions
The most commonly taught approach is
neoclassical welfare economics
36. Pareto Efficiency
Pareto improvement-- Any change in
allocation that makes at least one person
better off without making anyone worse
off
Pareto optimum– an allocation where no
further Pareto improvements are possible
We always want to be at a Pareto
optimum
40. Marginal rate of substitution
If you lose one fig, how many apples would you
need to remain just as happy?
Determined by slope of indifference curve
Pareto optimum occurs when
Eve
af
Adam
af MRS
MRS
44. First Fundamental Theorem of
Welfare Economics
Assumptions:
If all producers receive the same price
And there is a perfect market for every commodity
And people are perfectly rational,
Then, the free market automatically leads to a
Pareto Efficient allocation
If assumptions hold and all we care about is
Pareto efficiency, then government should be
minimized
But some Pareto optimums may be better for
society than others
45. Second Fundamental Theorem of
Welfare Economics
We can attain any point on the contract
curve by changing initial endowments and
letting market take over.
So initial distribution matters, big time
46. Conclusions
If markets functioned according to theory,
the major role of government would focus
on initial distribution
Markets unfortunately do not function
according to theory, as we’ll learn in next
lecture