9. TOXINS HAVE TWO TYPES:
• Exotoxins are proteins
produced inside pathogenic
bacteria as part of their
growth and metabolism
• Endotoxins are the lipid portions of
LPS that are part of the outer
membrane of the cell wall of gram-
negative bacteria
• The endotoxins are liberated when
the bacteria die and the cell wall
breaks apart.
9
2. Endotoxins (pyrogens)
1. Exotoxins
15. 15
Single dose units Multiple dose units
Infusion solution
should not
contain
antimicrobial
preservatives
contain a suitable
antimicrobial
preservative
should normally not
exceed 30 mL
usually more
than 100 mL do not contain
any
antimicrobial
preservatives
Type of
Packaging
16. 16
Type of Volume
• Small Volume Parenteral,
SVP
• บรรจุในภาชนะไม่เกิน
mL
• Single dose / Multiple
dose
• Large Volume Parenteral, LVP
• บรรจุในภาชนะขนาด 100 –
1000 mL
• Single dose เท่านั้น
• ห ้ามใส่ antimicrobial agents
35. PRIMARY PARENTERAL ROUTES
Routes Usual Vol.
(ml)
Needle
commonly
used
Formulation
constraints
Type of medication
administered
Small volume
parenterals
Subcutaneous 0.5-2 5/8” , 23 Need to be
isotonic
Insulin, vaccines
Intramuscular 0.5-2 1.5” , 22 Can be solution,
emulsions, oils,
or suspensions,
isotonic
preferably
Nearly all drug classes
intravenous 1-100 Veinpunctur
e
1.5” , 20-22
Solutions,
emulsions, and
liposomes
Nearly all drug classes
Intradermal 0.05 ½-5/8” , 25-
26
Should be
isotonic
Diagnostic agents
Large volume
parenterals
101 and
larger
(infusion
Venoclysis
1.5” , 18-19
Solutions, some
emulsions
35
36. OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Routes Usual Vol.
(ml)
Needle
commonly
used
Formulation
constraints
Type of medication
administered
Intra-arterial 2-20 20-22 Solution, some
emulsions
Radiopaque media,
antineoplastic,
antibiotics
Intrathecal
(intraspinal)
1-4 24-28 Must be isotonic Local anesthetics,
analgesics, neurolytic
agents
Intraepidural 6-30 5” , 16-18 Must be isotonic Local anesthetics,
narcotics, steroids
intracisternal Must be isotonic
Intra-articular 2-20 1.5-2” , 22 Must be isotonic Local anesthetics,
morphine, steroids,
NSAIDS, antibiotics
Intracardiac 0.2-1 5” , 22 Cardiotonic drugs,
calcium
intrapleural 2-30 2-5” , 16-22 Local anesthetics,
narcotics,
chemotherapeutic 36
ความรู้พื้นฐานเกี่ยวกับยาปราศจากเชื้อ
Considered in this chapter are important
pharmaceutical dosage forms with the common characteristic of sterility, that is, they
are free from contaminating microorganisms.
https://smallthingsmattermcc.wordpress.com/2016/10/30/dead-bacteria-and-pyrogens/
Most Gram negative bacteria produce entotoxins whereas most Gram positive bacteria produce exotoxins. Endotoxins are capable of causing a problem only when the bacterium dies/is killed during sterilization. These cause fever.
Toxins are of two types: Endotoxins (pyrogens) and Exotoxins.
Exotoxins are much more lethal when compared to endotoxins; they are secreted as a by product of the bacterium’s growth and metabolism, when the bacterium is still alive. They do not cause fever, but small amounts are enough, as they are highly toxic, to cause cardiovascular disturbances, shock and even death!
Medical equipment that has been sterilizrf may still contain endotoxin
โดยการกรอง
กลไกการกรองจะเป็นลักษณะดูดซับหรือแลกเปลี่ยนไอออน
เช่น ตัวกรองชนิดแผ่นใยหิน (asbestos pads) / ตัวกรองชนิดเมมเบรนที่มีรูพรุนขนาดเล็กมาก (ultrafilter)
*วิธีที่ดีที่สุด คือ การป้องกันไม่ให้มีการปนเปื้อนจากไพโรเจนในขั้นตอนการผลิต*
https://www.gmp-compliance.org/gmp-news/single-dose-multiple-dose-or-single-patient-use-container
Single-Dose Container
A single-dose container is a container of a parenteral preparation that is not required to meet the antimicrobial effectiveness testing requirements. A single-dose container is designed for use with a single patient as a single injection/ infusion. Examples of single-dose containers are vials, ampules, and prefilled syringes.
Multiple-Dose Container
A multiple-dose container is a container of a parenteral preparation that has met antimicrobial effectiveness testing requirements, or is excluded from such testing requirements by FDA regulation. It is intended to contain more than one dose of the drug product. Multiple-dose containers are generally expected to contain 30 mL or less of product. The beyond-use date for an opened or entered (e.g., needle-punctured) multiple-dose container is 28 days, unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer on the label. An example of a multiple-dose container is a vial.
Single-Patient-Use Container
A single-patient-use container is a container of a parenteral preparation that is intended to be used multiple times for a single patient. Examples of single-patient-use containers are patient controlled analgesia cartridges and certain pens for injection.
For multiple-dose and single-patient-use containers, the antimicrobial effectiveness testing results will be used to support the labeled beyond-use date or discard statements.
The agency says that "Applicants should determine the proper package type term (“single-dose,” “multiple-dose,” or “single-patient-use”) for injectable medical products for human use and use only the correct term for the package type throughout the labeling". Furthermore, the package type term “single-dose” is required to appear on the container labels of single-dose injectable medical products that have a United States Pharmacopeia (USP) monograph, when space permits. When space does not permit the “single-dose” term to appear on such products’ container labels, it must appear on the carton or other outer container or wrapper, or in the prescribing information.
http://apps.who.int/phint/pdf/b/6.2.1.5.Parenteral-preparations.pdf
Injections
Definition
Injections are sterile, pyrogen-free solutions or dispersions (emulsions or suspensions) of one or more active ingredients in a
suitable vehicle.
Whenever possible an injection is prepared using an aqueous vehicle. If necessary suitable non-aqueous solvents are indicated
in the individual monographs. Injections that are dispersions should remain sufficiently stable so that, after shaking, a
homogeneous dose can be withdrawn.
Single-dose injections should not contain antimicrobial preservatives unless justified and authorized. Injections containing an
antimicrobial preservative must not be administered intracisternally, intrathecally, epidurally or by any route giving access to the
cerebrospinal fluid, or intra- or retro-ocularly.
Multidose preparations
Multidose preparations contain a suitable antimicrobial preservative in appropriate concentrations except in cases where the
preparations themselves have adequate antimicrobial properties. The containers are equipped to ensure adequate protection of
the contents after partial withdrawal. In order to minimize the risk of contamination resulting from multiple penetrations of the
closure the contents of a multidose preparation should normally not exceed 30 mL.
Uniformity of content
Single-dose suspensions for injection comply with 5.1 Uniformity of content for single-dose preparations.
Intravenous infusions
Definition
Intravenous infusions are sterile, pyrogen-free aqueous solutions or emulsions with water as continuous phase, usually prepared
to be isotonic. They are intended for administration in large volumes (usually more than 100 mL) and do not contain any
antimicrobial preservatives.
On visual inspection emulsions for intravenous injection should show no evidence of phase separation.
ตัวยาที่ฉีดเข้ากล้ามเนื้อจะถูกดูดซึมอย่างรวดเร็ว โดยเฉพาะบริเวณ deltoid
การดูดซึมของตัวยาจะเพิ่มขึ้นเมื่อมีการเคลื่อนไหวของกล้ามเนื้อ หรือการนวดบริเวณที่ฉีดยานานประมาณ 2 นาที
เพิ่มเติม....การลดความเจ็บปวดเวลาฉีดยา
สามารถตั้งตำรับยาฉีดให้มีการดูดซึมของตัวยาอย่างช้าๆได้ โดยเรียกกลุ่มของตัวยาที่อยู่เป็นก้อนว่า depot และจะปลดปล่อยตัวยาออกมาอย่างช้าๆ
แต่ยาบางชนิดใช้วิธีนี้ไม่ได้ เช่น vincristine หรือ doxorubicin ทำให้กล้ามเนื้อเกิด necrosis ได้
A depot injection is an injection, usually subcutaneous or intramuscular, of a pharmacological agent which releases its active compound in a consistent way over a long period of time. Depot injections are usually either solid or oil-based. Depot injections may be available as certain forms of a drug, such as decanoate salts or esters. Examples of depot injections include Depo Provera and haloperidol decanoate.
The advantages of using a long-acting depot injection include increased medication compliance due to reduction in the frequency of dosing, as well as more consistent serum concentrations. A significant disadvantage is that the drug is not immediately reversible, since it is slowly released.