This document outlines the topics and resources covered in a study of computer graphics. It is divided into four units. Unit I introduces computer graphics and covers display processors and graphic devices. Unit II discusses drawing geometry and filling algorithms. Unit III examines 2D transformations, viewing, and clipping operations. Unit IV explores 3D graphics, modeling, transformations, projections, hidden surface removal, shading, and animation. The primary resources recommended are books and notes by Pradeep K. Bhatia, Donald Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, and the author's own website for additional presentation materials. Numerical examples and programs are provided by Pradeep K. Bhatia to accompany many of the topics.
C is a general-purpose programming language widely used to develop operating systems and compilers. It was developed in the early 1970s at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie. Some key reasons for C's popularity include its efficiency, ability to access low-level hardware, and ability to be compiled on a variety of computers. C source code files use a .c extension and must be compiled into an executable binary file before running. Common uses of C include operating systems, language compilers, databases, and network drivers.
3D modeling is the process of creating mathematical representations of 3D objects using specialized software. The 3D models can be displayed as 2D images or used in simulations and games. Models can be created manually or automatically and represent objects as connected points, lines, and surfaces. 3D models are widely used in industries like movies, video games, medicine, engineering, and more to represent objects and designs.
This document provides a concise summary of the basic features of the C programming language, including variable types, operators, control structures, complex data types, functions, and other common elements. It is intended as a quick review for someone with programming experience or as an introduction for new programmers to understand the core components of C. The summary is maintained online as part of Stanford University's computer science education resources.
The program receives 3 test scores as input from the user using scanf, stores them in an integer array called scores, and then calculates and prints the total and average of the scores by looping through the array and performing the calculations. It demonstrates receiving input into an array and then processing the array elements to produce an output.
Firmware is the combination of hardware and software that resides in read-only memory on devices to control their basic functions. It is used in devices ranging from remote controls to industrial equipment. More complex devices use firmware that can be updated through flash memory to add features or fix bugs. Originally, firmware referred to the low-level instructions that defined a computer's instruction set stored in RAM, but now broadly refers to any read-only software embedded in devices.
The document contains C code for implementing various computer graphics algorithms including line drawing algorithms like Bresenham's line drawing algorithm, DDA line drawing algorithm, and symmetrical DDA line drawing algorithm. It also contains circle drawing algorithms using trigonometric, polynomial, Bresenham's and mid-point circle algorithms. Further, it includes ellipse drawing algorithms using trigonometric and polynomial methods. Finally, it shows an implementation of the Liang-Barsky line clipping algorithm.
The document provides 15 coding questions related to C aptitude with sample code snippets and explanations for the output. It covers topics like pointers, structures, functions, arrays, loops, operators and type conversions. Sample questions include predicting output for code involving linked lists, structures, function calls and evaluating expressions.
This document outlines the topics and resources covered in a study of computer graphics. It is divided into four units. Unit I introduces computer graphics and covers display processors and graphic devices. Unit II discusses drawing geometry and filling algorithms. Unit III examines 2D transformations, viewing, and clipping operations. Unit IV explores 3D graphics, modeling, transformations, projections, hidden surface removal, shading, and animation. The primary resources recommended are books and notes by Pradeep K. Bhatia, Donald Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, and the author's own website for additional presentation materials. Numerical examples and programs are provided by Pradeep K. Bhatia to accompany many of the topics.
C is a general-purpose programming language widely used to develop operating systems and compilers. It was developed in the early 1970s at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie. Some key reasons for C's popularity include its efficiency, ability to access low-level hardware, and ability to be compiled on a variety of computers. C source code files use a .c extension and must be compiled into an executable binary file before running. Common uses of C include operating systems, language compilers, databases, and network drivers.
3D modeling is the process of creating mathematical representations of 3D objects using specialized software. The 3D models can be displayed as 2D images or used in simulations and games. Models can be created manually or automatically and represent objects as connected points, lines, and surfaces. 3D models are widely used in industries like movies, video games, medicine, engineering, and more to represent objects and designs.
This document provides a concise summary of the basic features of the C programming language, including variable types, operators, control structures, complex data types, functions, and other common elements. It is intended as a quick review for someone with programming experience or as an introduction for new programmers to understand the core components of C. The summary is maintained online as part of Stanford University's computer science education resources.
The program receives 3 test scores as input from the user using scanf, stores them in an integer array called scores, and then calculates and prints the total and average of the scores by looping through the array and performing the calculations. It demonstrates receiving input into an array and then processing the array elements to produce an output.
Firmware is the combination of hardware and software that resides in read-only memory on devices to control their basic functions. It is used in devices ranging from remote controls to industrial equipment. More complex devices use firmware that can be updated through flash memory to add features or fix bugs. Originally, firmware referred to the low-level instructions that defined a computer's instruction set stored in RAM, but now broadly refers to any read-only software embedded in devices.
The document contains C code for implementing various computer graphics algorithms including line drawing algorithms like Bresenham's line drawing algorithm, DDA line drawing algorithm, and symmetrical DDA line drawing algorithm. It also contains circle drawing algorithms using trigonometric, polynomial, Bresenham's and mid-point circle algorithms. Further, it includes ellipse drawing algorithms using trigonometric and polynomial methods. Finally, it shows an implementation of the Liang-Barsky line clipping algorithm.
The document provides 15 coding questions related to C aptitude with sample code snippets and explanations for the output. It covers topics like pointers, structures, functions, arrays, loops, operators and type conversions. Sample questions include predicting output for code involving linked lists, structures, function calls and evaluating expressions.
Gouraud shading and Phong shading are two common techniques for interpolating shading across polygon surfaces in 3D graphics. Gouraud shading linearly interpolates intensities across polygon surfaces, improving on constant shading but still resulting in Mach bands or streaks. Phong shading interpolates normal vectors and applies lighting models at each surface point, producing more realistic highlights but requiring more computation than Gouraud shading. Fast Phong shading approximates calculations to speed up rendering with Phong shading at the cost of some accuracy.
Tweening and morphing are techniques used in animation to generate intermediate frames between key frames. Tweening uses linear interpolation to create smooth transitions between frames by interpolating point positions. Morphing transitions between full color images by simultaneously warping and dissolving regions of images using tweening techniques applied to mesh grids overlaid on images. Both tweening and morphing require careful setup by artists and are used in hand-drawn animation as well as digital effects in movies.
Projection is defined as mapping a point in 3D space to a 2D image plane. There are two main types of projection: perspective and parallel. Perspective projection uses a center of projection and models how objects appear smaller based on distance, producing effects like vanishing points. Parallel projection projects along a fixed direction, preserving scale and shape. Common types include orthographic (perpendicular) and oblique projections.
This document provides an overview of animation, including its definition, categories, techniques, principles, and file formats. It defines animation as bringing images to life by varying visual properties over time. There are two main categories: cell animation involving hand-drawn frames, and computer animation which can be 2D or 3D. Basic animation techniques include drawn, cut-out, model, and computer animation. Principles like squash and stretch, anticipation, and timing are described. Common file formats and animation software are also listed.
The document contains 20 coding questions and their explanations. It covers topics like operators, data types, arrays, pointers, structures, typecasting, precedence rules, I/O functions, and more. For each question, the expected output or errors are predicted. The explanations clearly describe the logic behind each output by analyzing the code snippets line-by-line.
The C programming language was developed in the 1970s and is widely used for system software and applications. The preprocessor modifies source code according to directives like #define and evaluates conditional compilation. It can create powerful macros and turn compiler features on/off. Static can retain value between function calls, make functions invisible to other files, or limit global variables to a file. C has automatic, static, and allocated storage classes. Hashing condenses data to an integer hash value for fast searching by using the value as an array index.
An enumerated data type (enum) allows a variable to be assigned one of a list of predefined constant values. An enum defines a new data type with a set of named constants, which can then be used to declare enum variables that may be assigned one of the defined constant values. This helps simplify programs, enhance readability, and catch errors at compile time by restricting variables to a set of predefined values.
2 d transformations by amit kumar (maimt)Amit Kapoor
Transformations are operations that change the position, orientation, or size of an object in computer graphics. The main 2D transformations are translation, rotation, scaling, reflection, shear, and combinations of these. Transformations allow objects to be manipulated and displayed in modified forms without needing to redraw them from scratch.
Gouraud shading and Phong shading are two common techniques for interpolating shading across polygon surfaces in 3D graphics. Gouraud shading linearly interpolates intensities across polygon surfaces, improving on constant shading but still resulting in Mach bands or streaks. Phong shading interpolates normal vectors and applies lighting models at each surface point, producing more realistic highlights but requiring more computation than Gouraud shading. Fast Phong shading approximates calculations to speed up rendering with Phong shading at the cost of some accuracy.
Tweening and morphing are techniques used in animation to generate intermediate frames between key frames. Tweening uses linear interpolation to create smooth transitions between frames by interpolating point positions. Morphing transitions between full color images by simultaneously warping and dissolving regions of images using tweening techniques applied to mesh grids overlaid on images. Both tweening and morphing require careful setup by artists and are used in hand-drawn animation as well as digital effects in movies.
Projection is defined as mapping a point in 3D space to a 2D image plane. There are two main types of projection: perspective and parallel. Perspective projection uses a center of projection and models how objects appear smaller based on distance, producing effects like vanishing points. Parallel projection projects along a fixed direction, preserving scale and shape. Common types include orthographic (perpendicular) and oblique projections.
This document provides an overview of animation, including its definition, categories, techniques, principles, and file formats. It defines animation as bringing images to life by varying visual properties over time. There are two main categories: cell animation involving hand-drawn frames, and computer animation which can be 2D or 3D. Basic animation techniques include drawn, cut-out, model, and computer animation. Principles like squash and stretch, anticipation, and timing are described. Common file formats and animation software are also listed.
The document contains 20 coding questions and their explanations. It covers topics like operators, data types, arrays, pointers, structures, typecasting, precedence rules, I/O functions, and more. For each question, the expected output or errors are predicted. The explanations clearly describe the logic behind each output by analyzing the code snippets line-by-line.
The C programming language was developed in the 1970s and is widely used for system software and applications. The preprocessor modifies source code according to directives like #define and evaluates conditional compilation. It can create powerful macros and turn compiler features on/off. Static can retain value between function calls, make functions invisible to other files, or limit global variables to a file. C has automatic, static, and allocated storage classes. Hashing condenses data to an integer hash value for fast searching by using the value as an array index.
An enumerated data type (enum) allows a variable to be assigned one of a list of predefined constant values. An enum defines a new data type with a set of named constants, which can then be used to declare enum variables that may be assigned one of the defined constant values. This helps simplify programs, enhance readability, and catch errors at compile time by restricting variables to a set of predefined values.
2 d transformations by amit kumar (maimt)Amit Kapoor
Transformations are operations that change the position, orientation, or size of an object in computer graphics. The main 2D transformations are translation, rotation, scaling, reflection, shear, and combinations of these. Transformations allow objects to be manipulated and displayed in modified forms without needing to redraw them from scratch.