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The most effective tool for identifying
personality type is the
Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
This is a personality inventory developed
by Katherine Briggs and her daughter
Isabel Myers.
The MBTI is based on the work of the Swiss
analytical psychologist Carl Jung.
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The MBTI identifies eight different personality
‘preferences’ that we all use at different times
– but each individual will have a preference for
one particular combination over the others.
These eight preferences can be paired as
flashed out ahead:
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Where individuals draw their
energy
Extraversion is a preference for drawing
energy from the external world, tasks and
things, whereas Introversion is a preference
for drawing energy from the internal world of
one’s thoughts and feelings.
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What individuals pay attention
to and how they receive data
and information
Sensing is concerned with the five senses and
what is and has been whereas Intuition is
concerned with possibilities and patterns and
what might be.
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How an individual makes
decisions
Thinking is about making decisions in an
objective, logical way based on concepts of
right and wrong whereas Feeling is about
making decisions in a more personal values-
driven and empathic way.
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What sort of lifestyle an
individual enjoys
Judging is a preference for living in a more
structured and organized world which is more
orderly and predictable, whereas Perceiving is
a preference for living in a more flexible or
spontaneous world where options are kept
open and decisions not made until absolutely
necessary.
10. Myers Briggs Type Indicator types
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MBTI Type by Quadrant IS Thoughtful Realist IN Thoughtful Innovator
What they are most concerned
with!
Practicalities Thoughts, ideas, concepts
How they learn ? Pragmatically and by reading and
observing
Conceptually by reading, listening
and making connections
Where they focus their change
efforts ?
Deciding what should be kept and
what needs changing
Generating new ideas and theories
Motto “If it isn’t broke don’t fix it” “Let’s think ahead”
MBTI Type by Quadrant ES Action Oriented Realist EN Action Oriented Innovator
What they are most concerned
with
Actions New ways of doing things
How they learn Actively and by experimentation Creatively and with others
Where they focus their change
efforts
Making things better Putting new ideas into practice
Motto “Let’s just do it” “Let’s change it”
14. Propensity (tendency) for
Change…
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1. Nature of the Change
The nature of the change varies. Changes can
be externally imposed or internally generated.
They can be evolutionary or revolutionary in
nature. They can be routine or one-off. They
can be ordinary or transformative. They can be
about expansion or contraction. Different types
of change can provoke different attitudes and
different behaviors.
15. Propensity for Change
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2. Consequences of the Change
The consequences of the change are
significant. For whose benefit are the changes
seen to be (employees, customers, the
community, the shareholders, the board)? Who
will be the winners and who will be the losers?
16. Propensity for Change…
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3. Organizational History
The organizational history matters too. This
means the track record of how the
organization has handled change in the past,
what the prevailing culture is, what the
capacity of the organization is in terms of
management expertise and resources to
manage change effectively, and what the
future, beyond the change, is seen to hold.
17. Propensity for Change…
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4. Type of Individual
The personality type of the individual is a
major determining factor in how she or he
responds to change. The Myers Briggs type of
the individual (reviewed earlier) can give us an
indication of how an individual will respond to
change. People’s motivating forces are also
important – for example, are they motivated by
power, status, money or affiliation and
inclusion?
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Schein’s Model of
Transformative Change
Edgar Schein (1990) has been a leading
researcher and practitioner in the fields of
individual, organizational and cultural change
over the last 20 years.
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Schein’s Model of
Transformative Change…
Unfreezing: Creating the motivation to change
Learning new concepts and new meanings for old
concepts
Refreezing: Internalizing new concepts and
meanings
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How Change Agents Help Others
Change…
Interventions to facilitate the change
process
Behavioral
Cognitive
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
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How Change Agents Help Others
Change…
Behavioral
Performance management
Reward policies
Values translated into behaviors
Management competencies
Skills training
Management style
Performance coaching
360 degree feedback
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How Change Agents Help Others
Change…
Cognitive
Management by objectives
Business planning and performance frameworks
Results based coaching
Beliefs, attitudes and cultural interventions
Visioning
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How Change Agents Help Others
Change…
Psychodynamic
Understanding change dynamics
Counseling people through change
Surfacing hidden issues
Addressing emotions
Treating employees and managers as adults
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How Change Agents Help Others
Change…
Humanistic
Living the values
Developing the learning organization
Addressing the hierarchy of needs
Addressing emotions
Fostering communication and consultation
26. Strategic change management
A distinction between component and total
system models of organizational functioning
Perspective of organizations as open-systems
Organization’s alignment with:
the wider environment
the organization’s internal elements.
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27. Some of the aspects of the changes that confront
organizations today
The consequences of change for individuals and
organizations.
A typology for classifying different types of
change.
Many theories and models that change agents
can use to help them understand the functioning
of the various components of an organization,
such as:
motivation, decision-making, group functioning,
organization structure and so forth.
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28. The change agents can use this
understanding to help them identify what
needs to be changed.
There is a need for frameworks and models
with a more holistic approach that provide an
understanding of the way in which the total
system of organizational behavior functions
(Nadler & Tushman, 1980).
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29. Organisations as open systems
Embedded within a larger system to survive
Able to avoid entropy in order to sustain their vitality
Regulated by feedback – all components
Subject to equifinality or functional equivalence for (e.g. acting on
alternative strategies to seek the end result i.e. competitive
advantage)
Cyclical in their mode of functioning
Equilibrium seeking – homoeostasis - a steady state
INPUT
OUTPUT
TRANSFORMATION
FEEDBACK
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30. Contingency approach
Advanced by Burns and Stalker (1961) further
supported by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967).
Mechanistic Organic
1. Specialized tasks, narrow in
scope
1. Common tasks and
interdependencies
2. Tasks rigidly defined 2. Tasks adjusted and redefined as
required
3. Strict hierarchy of authority 3. Less adherence to formal authority
and rules
4. Centralized knowledge and
control
4. Decentralized knowledge and
control
5. Hierarchical communication 5. Network communication, diffused
channels
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31. Contingency approach
The findings revealed internal differentiation
tended to lead to problems of internal
coordination between departments and,
consequently, to a greater need for internal
integrating mechanisms.
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32. Congruence theory
Congruency theorists interpret the
results of these and other studies as
offering support for a broader
proposition that the alignment or ‘fit’
between an organization and the
environment and also between the
various internal elements of the
organization is a critical determinant of
organizational effectiveness.
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33. Alignment- A determinant of
organisational effectiveness
Kotter (1980), in his integrative model of organizational
dynamics, points to some of the factors that can determine
short, medium and long term effectiveness
Organisational
processes
External
environment
Dominant
coalition
Formal
organisational
arrangements
Technology
Social system
Employees &
other
tangible assets
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35. The six structural elements in Kotter's model are:
1. External environment, including the immediate task-related
environment and the wider environment (which includes public
attitudes, the political system, etc.);
2. Employees and other tangible assets such as buildings, plant,
inventories and cash;
3. Formal structure, job design and operating systems;
4. Internal social system including the organization's culture and
social structure;
5. Technology (or technologies) associated with the organization’s
core products;
6. Dominant coalition – the objectives and strategies of those who
control policy-making.
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36. Short term
Effectiveness is determined by the
quality of organisational processes
that affect speed of adjustment, such
as information gathering,
communicating and decision making.
Delays in reacting to change result in the wasteful use of
resources
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37. Effectiveness is determined by an
organisation’s ability to maintain
alignment between its main
elements.
Medium term
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38. Longer term
Kotter argues that over the longer term
effectiveness is determined by the
organisation’s ability to adapt the major
Organisational
processes
External
environment
Dominant
coalition
Formal
organisational
arrangements
Technology
Social system
Employees &
other
tangible assets
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39. Kotter’s examples of element states that do
and do not facilitate system adaptation
States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate adaptation
Organisation possesses a
single complex technology
that is rapidly becoming
outdated and requires large
amounts of capital equipment.
Organisation possesses the
most advanced technologies
for its products, services and
administrative systems along
with a number of alternative
technologies that might be
needed in the future.
Technology
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40. States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate
adaptation
Key norms are not supportive of
organisational flexibility;
• Low trust
• Low total power in the system
• Low morale
• Little sense of shared purpose.
Key norms are supportive of
organisational flexibility;
• High trust
• High total power in the system
• High morale
• High sense of shared purpose.
Social system
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41. States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate
adaptation
• Plant and equipment is run
down
• Employees, especially middle
managers, are unskilled
• Organisation has some highly
specialised human skills and
equipment that it doesn’t need
anymore.
•Plant and equipment in ‘top
notch’ shape
• Employees, especially middle
managers, are highly skilled
• Organisation possesses
equipment and people with skills
it doesn’t need now but may
need in the future.
Employee &
other
tangible assets
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42. States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate
adaptation
Formal systems are not very
sophisticated but are applied in great
detail, uniformly across the
organisation
• Formal system exist for
structuring, measuring,
rewarding, selecting and
developing different types of
people working on different tasks;
• Systems also exist to monitor
change and adapt formal
arrangements accordingly.
Organisational
arrangements
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43. States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate
adaptation
Dominant coalition is a small,
homogeneous and reasonably
untalented group with no effective
leadership
Dominant coalition is relatively large,
heterogeneous and talented group
who work together well and have
plenty of effective leadership
Dominant
coalition
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44. States that inhibit adaptation States that facilitate adaptation
Hostile environment:
• Organisation very dependent on
a large number of environmental
factors
• Demand for products and
services shrinking; supplies
hard to get; regulators hostile
and inconsistent
• Public hostile to firm; economy
in bad shape; political system
ineffective.
Benevolent environment:
• Organisation has moderate
countervailing power over all
external dependencies
• Demand buoyant; supplies
plentiful; regulators fair and
consistent.
• Public likes the organisation;
economy in good shape; political
system functioning effectively.
External
environment
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45. Nadler & Tushman’s congruence
model
Formal
Organisation
Group
Individual
Informal
organisation
Individual
Task organisation
Inputs Outputs
Strategy
Environment,
Resources,
History
Transformation process
FEEDBACK
Like Kotter, Nadler & Tushman (1980) highlight the importance of
alignment, but elaborate the organisation’s relationship with the wider
environment by focusing more explicit attention on the role of strategy.
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46. The six ‘fits’ between the components of the
transformation process (the internal
organization)
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Individual – formal organization. For example, to
what extent are individual needs met by the formal
organizational arrangements?
Individual – task. For example, to what extent do
individuals have the skills necessary to meet task
demands and to what extent do the tasks satisfy
individual needs?
Individual – informal organization. For example, to
what extent does the informal organization satisfy
the needs of individuals or make best use of their
talents?
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Task – formal organization. For example, to
what extent are the formal organizational
arrangements adequate to meet the
demands of the task?
Task – informal organization. For example, to
what extent does the informal organization
facilitate task performance?
Formal – informal organization. For example, to
what extent are the goals, rewards and structures
of the informal organization consistent with those
of the formal organization?
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Any delays in reacting to changes will
result in a wasteful use of resources.
49. Discussion topic
To what extent does the concept of alignment
(or non-alignment) help to explain the level of
effectiveness in your organisation?
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