1. Nisha Malhotra,Vancouver School of Economics and International Relations,
Faculty of Arts,University of British Columbia.

2. 70% of the Indian population relies on solid fuels
Solid fuels produce toxic pollutants
Serious health consequences

3. NFHS III (2005-2006) – Use of Solid Fuels

4. NFHS III (2005-2006) – Regional Differences

5. Biofuel smoke contain a large number of harmful pollutants.
 Particular matter (PM)/SPM
 carbon monoxide
 Nitrogen dioxide
 Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
 Benzo (alpha) pyrene extracted from SPM
 1,3-butadiene, Benzene, selenium, formaldehyde, Styrene, etc.
(Kandpal et al. 1994)
Coal in addition also releases some toxic elements.
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Fluorine (F), Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb)

6.  Anaemia
 ARIs & Respiratory Illnesses (Tuberculosis)
 Cancer: Lung/Bladder/Kidney/Pancreatic
 Immunodeficiency disorders
 Cognitive decline
Ref: Martorell et al. (1996) ; Haas et al. (1995); Erikson et al (2001); Pelletier (1994)

7.  70% of the Indian population relies on solid
fuels.
 Solid fuels produce pollutants with serious
health consequences.
Our Question
 Do they also lead to Childhood Stunting?

8.  Higher likelihood of contracting illnesses,
 lower recovery rates
 lower likelihood of survival
▪ Future intellect
▪ Future health status
 Percentage of women with short stature varies strikingly
according to the degree of stunting at 3 years of age
Martorell et al. (1992)
▪ Reproductive performance
▪ Predicts child’s birth size and survival
Martorell et al. (1996) ; Haas et al. (1995); Erikson et al (2001); Pelletier (1994)

9.  Stunting:
 Bone age retardation and bone maturation in children (Schlipkoter et al. 1986)
 Impair early childhood skeletal growth (coal – Czech) (Ghosh et. al. 2011)
 Intrauterine Growth Retardation
Birth weight and length, head circumference, cognitive skills at age 5
-Poland - PAHs (Jedrychowski et. all. 2004)) ; PM and PAHs (Dejmek et. all. 2000)
▪ endocrine disruptors: Benzo[a]pyrene and phenanthrene
▪ Inhibit insulinlike growth factors (embryonic development) and epidermal
growth factors in placenta
▪ Hayakawa et. all. (2009; Guyda et. all. (1991)

10.  Indoor Coal Use (Czech Republic) - Smith et. all 2005
 Coal combustion Heating – Height forAge Z score
 Biofuel smoke in 7 developing countries (Cambodia, Nepal
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jordan, Moldova, Namibia) - Kyu et. al. 2009
 Biofuel Smoke-Height for age Z score; Stunting
 Biofuel smoke in India-Mishra & Retherford 2007
 Biofuel Smoke - Anaemia and Stunting

12. The Energy Ladder-Wealth Index

13. The Energy Ladder- can be replicated with NFHS3

14. DATA
 NFHS III (2005-2006)
 Children – Less than 3 years of age (~ 21,000)
Outcome
 Stunting - Height-for-age
 Height: Height by Age Z score (HAZ )
Exposure
 Solid Fuel: Coal/Charcoal (2.25%); Wood (50%); CropWaste
& shrubs (6.84%) ; Animal Dung (9.8%)
 Natural Gas/LPG (26.85%); Kerosene (3.45%)
Childhood Stunting associated with Solid Fuel?

15. ControlVariables:
 Wealth Index (D.V);
 Religion Dummies
 Diet: Breastfeeding; Other than BM; 4 Food Groups; Iodine
Salt
 City Density: Mega City, Large City D.V.
 Maternal Characteristic: Education;Work status; Age;
Autonomy (Decision to access health care), Mother Smokes;
Media Exposure; Maternal Height
 Child Demography: Male; Birth Order;Twin Birth; Age
 Sanitation: Open Defecation;WaterTreatment
 Cooking Environment: Inside, Separate Kitchen, Window

16. Results

18. Wealth Index
1 2 3 4 5
Why ?
Solid fuel is used even among the wealthiest quintile

19. Source: www.tribuneindia.com
LPG Scarcity Consumers turn to traditional
fuels
Mahesh Sharma,
Mandi Ahmedgarh, January 2011
A woman burns cow dung cakes and wood
Schools turn to wood as LPG costs dear
Arun Sharma
Bindrakh village (Punjab), November 2012
Cooking Staff preparing midday meals in a School
New reports might shed some light on some of the reasons -

20. Affordability and Access

21.  70% of the Indian population relies on solid fuels.
 Solid fuels produce pollutants with serious health
consequences.
Our Question
 Do they also lead to Childhood Stunting?-
Suggestive
 Can this association be mitigated - cooking
practices?

22. Cooking Environment

23. A one room house – Let’s add windows and set a separate kitchen.

24. Combined K-S: (D= 0.0628) & (P value =0.000)
Two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

25. Results

26. Results

27. • Stunting is shown to be associated with the use of Solid Fuels
• This association can be mitigated by following safer
cooking practices
• Outside
• Separate location for a kitchen
• Ventilation –Window
Learn

28.  Efficient Cooking Stoves
 Replacing solid fuel with cleaner fuels
 Substitution across solid fuels?
 Ensuring proper ventilation
 We need a greater discussion on cooking practices that
can reduce “Pollution concentrations”- cumulative
exposure.