Conserving America's Beauty Seminar ROUGH FINAL

QUINCY UNIVERSITY
Conserving America’s Beauty: The Battle for
Creation of the National Parks
A thesis to the Department of History in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Bachelor of Arts Degree
Daniel T. Camp
4/13/2015

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Table of Contents
Introduction…. ………………………………………………………………………………..2
Historical Background………………………………………………………………………...4
Historiography………………………………………………………………………………...9
Narrative……………………………………………………………………………………..13
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………....29
Works Cited………………………………………………………………………………….31

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Introduction
It took more than three thousand years to make some of the trees in these Western
woods -- trees that are still standing in perfect strength and beauty, waving and
singing in the mighty forests of the Sierra. Through all the wonderful, eventful
centuries ... God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease,
avalanches, and a thousand straining, leveling tempests and floods; but he cannot
save them from fools -- only Uncle Sam can do that. John Muir- 18971
Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the United States Forest Service, described John Muir
as someone whose words and stories were “worth crossing the continent to hear”. This sense of2
admiration from Pinchot to Muir is common in his writing and letters even though their different
views on conservation of land and resources in the United States and the purpose of a National
Park Service (NPS) are studied. The third key player in the creation of the National Parks System
is the 26th President and avid outdoorsman, Theodore Roosevelt. The push for protection of land
and resources had not been a political issue in the United States before the 1900’s because the
uncharted lands to the west seemed to have unlimited natural resources. It was not until men
such as Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot entered the push for conservation in the U.S. that light was
cast upon the importance of preserving not only the nation’s natural resources, but also the
untouched, awe-inspiring landscapes that gave rise to Muir’s poetic praise. The story of the
creation of the National Park Service can be seen in three phases: the beginnings of the
conservation movement, a schism between Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt’s ideology in the early
John Muir, Our National Parks (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1901), 364-3651
Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947.), 101.2

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1900’s, and finally the formation of the NPS that resulted from the combining of their three
different values and ideas. Although all three of these men had different ideas on what
conservation meant, the coordination of their fight for conservation and ultimately the tough
compromise of their very separate ideas, is the reason the National Park Service was created and
has expanded with new parks through today.
The purpose of this study is to examine why the National Park Service (NPS) was created
and how it came to consider conservation through the strenous efforts of Theodore Roosevelt,
John Muir, and Gifford Pinchot. This study focuses on these three men because of their vast
amount of influence they had on introducing the idea of conservation as a main congressional
debate in America. While there are other people who had roles in the creation of the National
Parks System such as the first director of the NPS Steve Mather, it was the passion, tenacity, and
political/national influence from these three that set its framework. The chronological parameters
of this paper start in 1864 with the creation of Yosemite Valley in California as a protected public
park by Abraham Lincoln and end with the creation of the National Park Service in 1916.3
The study of the creation of the National Park Service is important for a number of
reasons. First, it was the first National Park System ever created in history. The conservation of
natural lands and resources was an uncharted endeavor no other nation had yet been able to
achieve on a large scale. By creating the first, the United States became a model for the rest of
the world. Conservation also has economic implications such as in the creation of jobs and a
market for travel and ecotourism. The National Parks created jobs for a wide spectrum of
Hal Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, (Washington D.C.: National Wildlife3
Federation, 1975), 115.

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workers from construction workers to build roads to biologists to monitor the use of natural
resources. Also, the issue of whether to make money off of these resources or to isolate them for
future generations was an economic and social issue. Many thought that natural resources were
nearly unlimited in the young country where the industrial age was growing outward from
expanding cities without any regard for local ecosystems. This issue is also politically important
because it separated party ideologies such as the progressives, democrats, and republicans and
does even today. It is important to note that democrat and republican values are not the same
today as in the start of the 20th century. Also a social separation was created by urban vs. rural
development. A debate was sparked throughout America on the spread of humans into wild areas
previously untouched and whether it should be restricted or not. As people fled to the cities, the
land that remained became foreign to most. The thematic parameters of this study are economic,
religious, regional, social, political, cultural, clash of personalities, and rural vs. urban living.
Historical Background
To examine the ideologies of Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt that created the principles for
the NPS, it is necessary to examine their political, economic, social, and religious backgrounds.
Studying how these men grew up makes it easier to understand why they feel certain ways about
conservation. Understanding their own personal histories is key to understanding why they
dedicated themselves so passionately to this work.
To understand the backgrounds of these men, one must first understand what
conservation of natural resources and ecosystems is all about. Conservation is a fairly new
political debate and concern in the United States that originated in the last 20 years of the 1800’s.

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The World Wild Life foundation outlines the goals of conservationism in America as simply
finding a way to save the environment to make life livable for all living things. Conservation is
more than just spotting a herd of deer by the woods or seeing dolphins playing in the surf, it is
one of the greatest indicators of environmental health. Conservationism is a key component to4
making sure that Mother Earth remains livable for generations to come. Simply put,
Conservation is the preservation of natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems from economic
exploitation and destruction. Without conservation of our wide variety of landscapes from
mountains and deserts and natural resources ranging from oil to timber, our world would be
destroyed eventually becoming unlivable.
John Muir, the oldest of the three, was also the only one not born in the United States. He
was born in Dunbar, Scotland in 1838 to a family heavily influenced by his father’s strong
religious convictions. Muir’s family was members of the Disciples of Christ, strict Calvinists
based mostly in the United States. Muir’s father David and his three eldest children left Scotland5
on February 19th, 1849 to sail to the new world. While the Muir’s immigrated to the United
States on religious convictions, most immigrants coming to America at this time looked to
capitalize on the newly discovered gold mines in California. His family eventually made their6
way across the nation and landed in the new state of Wisconsin. It was here that John Muir grew
up on the family farm. Life was often grim for John and his family, but it was in this area that his
Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, 177.4
John Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,5
1965), 3-15.
Ibid, 453.6

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love for nature began and was explored and expanded. While Muir was only allowed to read the7
Bible by his father, He secretly read Shakespeare and Milton. His thirst for knowledge did not
stop there. He left home to spend several years at the University of Wisconsin studying many
different fields of natural history such as botany and geology. Although he left the university8
after only two years, he kept in contact with Professor Dr. Ezra Slocum Carr who had introduced
him to the idea of glaciation forming different landscapes. These concepts of glaciation lead to
some of Muir’s greatest contributions in understanding the natural history and formation of the
Yosemite Valley in California. Muir’s main philosophy on conservation revolves around the idea9
of total preservation to keep wilderness the way it has always been and to avoid capitalist desires
such as the timber and agriculture industries.10
After making various expeditions through North and Central America, in 1868 Muir
made his way into a place he described as the “grandest and most divine of all living spaces”
known to others as the Yosemite Valley in the Sierra Nevada mountain range. His description11
of the valley shows his religious background influencing his writing and perception of nature. To
Muir, this valley was more than just a fabulous work of nature, but instead something God’s
presence is felt more readily. This area became protected by the US government under President
R.M., McDowall, "Biogeography In The Life And Literature Of John Muir: A Ceaseless Search7
For Pattern." Journal of Biogeography, 2010; 1630.
Ibid8
Dennis R. Dean, "John Muir and the Origin of Yosemite Valley." Annals of Science, (Kenosha,9
Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin-Parkside,1991), 454.
Borland, The History of Wildlife in America, 119.10
William Frederic Badè, The Life And Letters Of John Muir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.,11
1924), 110.

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Abraham Lincoln in 1864 after a group of soldiers stumbled into the valley while chasing a
rogue group of Indians in 1851. Muir first worked as a field hand and shepherd exploring the12
valley and corresponding with Dr. Carr. As he spent more and more time in Yosemite, Muir13
wrote extensive journals and studied the effects of glaciation and even observed the change of
different plants based on elevation. The more time Muir spent in the valley, the more he fell in14
love with its beauty and realized how important the conservation of such areas was vital to
preserve for generations to come. Places such as the Yosemite Valley were where people could
go to get away from the hustle of city life and reconnect with themselves and God in Muir’s
eyes. This philosophy was evident in 1892 when Muir founded the Sierra Club along with others
who shared his love of the valley. Together they strove for one goal through three means in the
Yosemite Valley: the protection of natural wonders and forests through recreational, educational,
and conservationist means.15
Gifford Pinchot was born on August 11, 1865 in Connecticut. Pinchot’s father James was
one of the earliest foresters in America after he battled with the guilt of his earlier ancestors
making their fortune off of exploiting the land. In his book Breaking New Ground, Pinchot goes16
Dean, “John Muir and the Origin of the Yosemite Valley,” 456.12
Ibid, 462.13
John Muir and Galen A. Rowell, The Yosemite: The Original John Muir Text (San Francisco:14
Sierra Club Books, 1989), 649.
Michael P. Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 1892-1970 (San Francisco: Sierra Club15
Books, 1988), 187.
M. Nelson McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, Forester-Politician (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University16
Press, 1960), 2-35.

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as far to say that his father’s foresight and tenacity were the reason forestry came to America.17
Gifford Pinchot attended Yale with aspirations to follow in his father’s footsteps and pursue a
career in forestry to help right the family name. The only problem was that this field was not18
nearly mature enough in America to have an academic field of study, even at a school such as
Yale. Schools in America did not have forestry majors yet. Once decided to pursue a career in
forestry, Gifford settled on a French forestry school at Nancy in Lorraine. From here he learned
from both Professor Lucien Boppe and especially Dr. Detrich Brandis who made forestry
tangible to young Pinchot. After finishing school in 1890, Pinchot returned to the US and was19
selected as the youngest member to be on the seven man National Forest Commission which he
held as a great honor. This commission was to go west and analyze the different forests and20
natural areas and form a report for Congress and President Grover Cleveland. It was on these21
journeys that Pinchot met Muir in the Sierras. He wrote highly of him and talked about how
much he loved to listen to his stories and be around him as much as possible. The report22
gathered on the commission’s journey led to the creation of the Division of Forestry within the
Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947), 110.17
Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 1-3.18
Ibid, 8-10.19
Nelson M. McGeary, Gifford Pinchot, Forester-politician (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton20
University Press, 1960), 19-22.
Ibid, 92.21
Ibid, 10322

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United States government. Pinchot became the head of that division in 1896 and with
Roosevelt’s help, became the first director of the United States Forest Service in 1905.23
Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 at the family home in New York. The
Roosevelt family was not the healthiest as both of Theodore’s parents succumbed to illness
(cancer and Typhoid Fever) in their late 40s. His siblings also suffered from various ailments
ranging from a warped spine to a case of epilepsy. Theodore at age three developed severe24
bronchial asthma. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born into old money, commonly called “blue
bloods”. The blue bloods who were mostly colonial families looked down upon those who had
recently acquired wealth since they were not from old families such as the Roosevelt’s who were
of Dutch descent. His grandfather was Cornelius Van Schaack Roosevelt, a prominent man in25
New York who had success as a merchant and then founded Roosevelt and Sons which he ran
with his son Theodore Roosevelt Sr. The bulk of their wealth came from real estate that
Cornelius Roosevelt purchased during the Panic of 1837 in the New York City area.26
Theodore Roosevelt attended Harvard University and had a fairly conventional
experience as a college student. AS a child Roosevelt fell in love with nature and while in college
he took it even further, publishing his first book The Summer Birds of the Adirondacks in
Ibid, 139-200.23
H.W. Brands, T.R.: The Last Romantic (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1997), 9-10.24
Louis Auchincloss, Theodore Roosevelt: The American Presidents Series: The 26th President25
1901-1909 (New York: Times Books, 2001), 35.
Brands, T.R., 5-6.26

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Franklin County, N.Y. He also formed the Boone and Crockett Club, one of the first successful27
conservation clubs in 1887. Observing nature was a hobby of Roosevelt that he got from his28
best friend, and Father. In the ensuing years Roosevelt entered the world of politics and worked
his way through government jobs consisting of the police comissioner of New York, governor of
New York, assistant Navy secretary of the United States under McKinley, vice President under
McKinley, and then in 1901 finally president of America following the assassination of President
McKinley. As president, Roosevelt became the first to make conservation a national issue.29
Historiography
There are four schools on this topic: The Muir School, the Pinchot School, the Roosevelt
School, and the Conservationist Movement School. The schools are based on the different views
of what conservation means and what the role of the National Park Service should be in the lives
of Americans and in the United States government. The separation in these schools comes from
who historians believe to be the most important in the creation of the National Park Service and
the conservation movement in the United States of America. For example, those in the Roosevelt
school argue that he is the main hero of the conservation movement and the eventual creation of
the NPS.
The first school of thought is the Muir School. This school personifies the idea that
conservation means protection of the forests and natural wonders of the United States from all
Nathan Miller, Theodore Roosevelt: A Life (New York: William Morrow, 1992), 66-78.27
Hal Borland, The History of Wildlife in America (Washington: National Wildlife Federation,28
1975),118.
Brands, T.R., 400-412.29

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influences including destructive human intrusion and capitalist desires which sought to exploit
natural resources for profit. The main books in this school are The Story of My Boyhood and
Youth , My First Summer in the Sierra , Letters to a Friend, Written to Mrs. Ezra S. Carr,30 31
1866-1879, and other such collections of works by John Muir. Also is the book Son of the
Wilderness: The life of John Muir written by Linnie Marsh Wolfe. The historians in this school32
argue that John Muir’s belief in conservation as leaving the wild like it is sparked debate that led
to formation to the National Park Service. Wolfe is a foremost Muir scholar and argues that the
National Park Service was a direct result of the work of John Muir. John Muir’s ideas were
molded by his unique upbringing compared to Roosevelt and Pinchot. Unlike the others, Muir
was not born in the United States and traveled to the country on his father’s religious
convictions. This strict religious youth molded Muir’s mind to see the works of nature as the
divine work of God. If these natural wonders were truly the works of God, then Muir would do
everything he could to seek complete protection for them. Another difference between this
school and the other two is the age difference between Muir and then Pinchot and Roosevelt.
There is an age difference around 20 years between Muir and the other two. As a poor immigrant
born 20 years earlier, Muir’s ideas are in a different spectrum than the other two authors since
they both came from wealthy families. Since he was not native to the United States, he
developed his love for the natural wonders of the states from a different perspective. Spending
Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth, 5.30
John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierra (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), prolougue.31
Linnie Marsh Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness: The Life of John Muir (New York: A.A. Knopf,32
1945), 5-12.

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his youth as a farm boy and coming from a family who was not from “old money” sets him apart
from the childhoods of both Roosevelt and Pinchot.
The second school contends that Gifford Pinchot is the main reason for the Conservation
Movement and the eventual creation of the NPS. The main sources used in this school are
Breaking New Ground, The Fight for Conservation, The Conservation Diaries of Gifford33 34
Pinchot, and Gifford Pinchot and the Making of Modern Environmentalism by Char Miller.35 36
His concept of conservation differed from Muir’s because he sought to preserve the nation’s
resources while also creating a way to best utilize them. Rather than just strictly protecting,
Pinchot planned for the use and renewal of resources. Historian Char Miller argues that the
Pinchot is the father of forestry in America and deserves the credit for the conservation
movement and creation of the National Parks. The fundamental disagreement between Muir and
Pinchot shaped some of the largest disputes in the history of conservation, especially including
the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley and created the eventual break in relationship.
The third school is the Roosevelt School. This school of thought argues that Theodore
Roosevelt was the main contributor to the creation of the National Parks Service through his time
as president and also after his presidency. Roosevelt wrote many different books and journals,
Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1947), 3.33
Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967),34
12.
Gifford Pinchot and Harold K. Steen, The Conservation Diaries of Gifford Pinchot (Durham,35
N.C.: Forest History Society, 2001), 5.
Char Miller, Gifford Pinchot and the Making of Modern Environmentalism, (Washington, DC:36
Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2001), 1-5.

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some about nature and his travels, but the main works that were used to form this school of
thought were his Autobiography, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt edited by H.W.37
Brands , the Works of Theodore Roosevelt and also the biographies of Roosevelt written by38 3940
Edmund Morris titled Theodore Rex and Colonel Roosevelt. Known as an avid gamesman and41 42
outdoorsman, member of the wealthy Roosevelt family, and respected politician, Roosevelt’s
vision of conservation is between that of Muir and Pinchot while bringing his own individual
views into consideration. For example, Roosevelt would often write with similar prose as Muir
when describing landscapes but he also helped to make policy that was not just centered around
the protection of wildlife and landscapes but also the use of available resources. Morris argues
that Roosevelt brought about most change in the conservation movement because of his
influence and political power. While Muir was an advocate for complete preservation of land and
Pinchot was interested in ways to use the land most efficiently while protecting it, Roosevelt
incorporated ideas from both arguments. His “blue blood” background lets him see the
importance of use of natural resources in the economy but his love for nature led him to see the
importance of preservation.
Theodore Roosevelt, Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 16.37
Theodore Roosevelt and H.W. Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (New38
York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 23.
Theodore Roosevelt, [Works]. Homeward Bound ed. Vol. 5 (New York: Review of Reviews39
Pub., 1910), 5.
Theodore Roosevelt, [Works]. Homeward Bound ed. Vol. 16 (New York: Review of Reviews40
Pub., 1910), 9-11.
Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex ( New York: Random House, 2001), 12.41
Edmund Morris, Colonel Roosevelt (New York: Random House, 2010), 8.42

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The fourth and final school is the Conservationist Movement School. This school
contends that the biggest factor in the creation of the national parks did not come directly from
those three individuals but rather the entire conservation movement as a whole. Two authors in
this school are Robert Shankland who is the author of Steve Mather of the National Parks and43
Benjamin Kline who wrote First along the River: A brief history of the U.S. Environmental
Movement. Authors in this school argue that many others deserve credit such as Steve Mather,44
the first director of the NPS. They contend that Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot have been given
too much credit.
The flaws of the schools are that not only one of those men can be given all of the credit
by themselves for the creation of the NPS. It was through compromise of all three’s ideas that
conservation became a forefront debate in congress. Also, the schools named for the authors also
feature Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot as authors. They have a certain amount of bias towards
themselves. For example, the historians in the Theodore Roosevelt School argue he is the most
important because he was the only one with real political power. The fourth school is flawed
because it does not count Muir, Roosevelt, and Pinchot as in high regard as they deserve in the
debate. Since this school is contending that others had a much larger impact, it down plays the
efforts put in by those three men.
Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, (New York: Knopf, 1951), V in the43
Preface.
Benjamin Kline, First along the River: A Brief History of the U.S. Environmental Movement,44
(San Francisco, Calif.: Acada Books, 1997), 3-12.

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Many primary sources impact this study. Sources such as personal journals, unpublished
journals, letters to peers and loved ones, congressional records, newspapers, are examples of
some of the primary research material. Secondary materials such as biographies and histories of
the environment in the U.S. are also used to complete the study.
Narrative
The story of conservation and the National Park Service starts long before its actual
creation in 1916. It starts with the creation of Yosemite as a national public park in 1864 during
the Lincoln administration. This was done after an examination of the land was done and the
wonders of the Valley were observed. This small step was the very beginning of a national debate
between those who saw conservation and protection of natural resources as an important issue
that needed to be addressed and those who believed that it was not a pressing problem. Before
the Conservation Movement, most Americans thought that their young nation had almost infinite
natural resources and that there was no need to conserve much because of the seemingly endless
amount of land and resources out west in the uncharted frontier.
The beginning of the Conservation Movement starts with the first of the three
conservationists to make an impact, John Muir. His story begins as he made his way to Yosemite
in 1868 after hiking through the United States and Central America. Yosemite was the first
protected land under the United States government which makes it a fitting place for Muir to
begin the push for conservation in the late 1870’s. Muir took note of all the natural wonders
around him in prose that makes you feel like you can experience it just through his words.
Fueling Muir’s idea of conservation defined as total preservation of a park is Muir’s belief that

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humans require time spent in these wild lands to live positive and fuflling lives. This means that
without exploring these fantastic displays of natural beauty, the human race is losing touch with
nature and the planet on which they live on, ultimately not spending any time to relax and
recharge. This sentiment can easily be seen in his work The Yosemite in the 1890’s when he
wrote, “Everyone needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where Nature may
heal and give strength to body and soul alike.” The idea that one’s soul is rooted within nature45
relates to Muir’s religious upbringing. Since his father was a devout Calvinist, Muir grew up
incorporating religion into all aspects of his own life. Seeing the grand valleys and peaks
surrounding him in the Sierras made him feel like he was standing in the “hand of God himself.”
This feeling is made completely evident in his journal from his first summer in the Sierra when
he mentions that the mountains and valleys are a vast display of God’s power and that just
simply being in the presence is enough to make one feel renewed. Muir’s poetic prose was one46
of the reasons that he was able to attract a sizable amount of readers to his writings. He attracted
a large and diverse audience to his published works. His scientific work on glaciers attracted a lot
of attention from scientists across the world while his interpretations of nature were also widely
read. His work was published in multiple magazines such as the Overland Monthly and the
science journal Stillman’s Journal. Muir became a mix between a naturalist and a geologist and47
people traveled to Yosemite just to get the chance to discuss with him.
Muir, The Yosemite, 714.45
Ibid,131-133.46
Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 158.47

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It was not long before Muir became the utmost authority on the features of Yosemite. In
1882, he was the founder and president of the greatest conservation club in the U.S. at the time,
The Sierra Club. Muir headed the club for 20 years and is still regarded today among the48
greatest scenery and nature preservation clubs. The huge amount of land that had yet to be
disturbed by human destruction and greed in the United States was Muir’s sanctuary and he
worked to detail it and politically pushed through Congress for keeping it the way it was. This
place was much unlike the Great Plains that already had its buffalo herds ravaged by the most
dangerous threat to American wildlife: the commercial market hunter which had also destroyed
the entire population of passenger pigeons by 1908. As late as into the 1880’s, groups of these
birds were described by many as gigantic flocks that could not possibly be counted. In only
twenty years their population was completely destroyed. John Muir began to fight for49
conservation of the country’s natural resources. He saw the damage done by exploitation of land
and wildlife and feared that if not checked by the federal government, loggers, hunters, and
others would threaten land and animals. Muir believed that the government should set aside vast
amounts of land forever, so that land could never be spoiled by those looking to get rich from the
land.
Starting on July 11th of 1896, Muir traveled with the newly created Division of Forestry.
The task of these men was to create a report for President Cleveland to give to Congress
Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 1892-1970, 25-35.48
Beard, Daniel B. Fading Trails, the Story of Endangered American Wildlife, Prepared by a49
Committee of the United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Daniel B. Beard, Chairman, Frederick C. Lincoln [and Others] (New York,
Boston, Etc.: Macmillan, 1942), 11-12.

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regarding the status of land in the Western United States and the possible need for protection of
land and resources. The Division of Forestry showed how the nation was beginning to pick up on
the Conservation Movement. Gifford Pinchot was the youngest member of the group selected.
Pinchot was elated to finally meet Muir for he had great admiration for the man. Pinchot was
fascinated with Muir’s story telling ability. Pinchot remarked on a special night that the two
shared together during the trip in late 1896 where they made their own camp and spent the night
in the woods with just the fire to keep them warm as Muir told his charismatic stories. In50
Pinchot’s writing it is evident that the younger man saw Muir as someone to look up to and even
as a mentor. While they seemed to get along with one another very well, in reality they had
distinct differences that set them apart regarding use of the preserved forests, eventually leading
to a fissure in their relationship. The origin of these differences come from the very different
lifestyles that these two had lived. Muir on one hand was from a foreign family who came to
America for mostly religious notions. His family never had money and that never seemed to
bother him. Muir spent his childhood days in Wisconsin running around the family farm with his
brother and neighbor boys exploring the woods and fascinating at nature. Neither money nor51
greed or the desire to one day be extremely wealthy was ever part of Muir’s life. These values
made him appreciate the little things around him better and take nothing for granted.
Gifford Pinchot had a contrasting childhood compared to Muir. Though Pinchot was also
a religious man and frequently attended church, they were from different denominations of
Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 100-104.50
John Muir, The Story of My Boyhood and Youth (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,51
1965), 115-125.

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Christianity. They did share some religious convictions when dealing with nature and both found
nature to be the work of God. Their biggest differences were age, wealth, and the different ways
they grew to love nature. Pinchot’s father pushed him into forestry, rather than him finding it
exclusively for himself because of his guilt that stems from the source of the Pinchot family’s
wealth: exploitation of natural resources. Pinchot saw the forest as a renewable form of natural52
resource that could be a maintainable asset to the United States forever. This influenced the way
Pinchot saw and appreciated things throughout his life. These differences in values led two to
disagree heavily on future debate on conservation in the United States. Muir adopted an anti-
capitalist mentality towards conservation whereas Pinchot believed in preserving the forests for
use.
Muir made it a point to the Commission that he was not to be considered a member of the
Commission of Forestry but instead wanted to be more of a freelancer, guide, and advisor. This
behavior was typical of Muir’s personality for he did not want to be tied down if a better
opportunity showed itself. It did not matter where they traveled they found signs of human
destruction everywhere. Muir in his journal wrote, “wherever the white man goes, the groves
vanish.” This alludes to a potential feeling of admiration for the native people of North America
and how they were able to cohabitate with the land peacefully without destroying precious
forests. Where forests should have stood now were now fires, mining operations, and obvious
illegal logging. The Northern Pacific railroad was not only plowing a trail through the frontier,
but also was devastatingly abusing the availability of timber for use and sale. The men compiled
their findings into a report that Muir was given to proof read and make changes, most of which
Breaking New Ground, 1-9.52

20
were stylistic changes. They finished the report in mid-February of 1897 just before the end of
Grover Cleveland’s term as president. Cleveland was impressed with the guidelines and
recommendations the Commission had come up with. The report called for four specific53
recommendations. First, the creation of thirteen new reservations that could be distributed across
eight of the western US states. Second, a plan to modify or repeal abused timber and mining laws
responsible for the destruction of many natural habitats. The third recommendation suggested
that biological science be used help monitor the amount of timber being used in forests so that
forests could be maintained and a reliable amount of timber could thrive. The fourth and final
suggestion was to create two new national parks, one at The Grand Canyon and another at Mount
Rainier. 54
President Cleveland responded to the commission’s report by issuing an executive order
calling for the thirteen recommended reserves to be set aside. The total amount of land that
would be under protection was 21,000,000 acres. Once the heads of the lumber, coal, and
railroad industries heard of the land appropriations, this sparked a hot debate in Congress. Media
jumped and the number of conservation journals, magazines, and newspapers went way up. Muir
pleaded passionately to his wide audience of readers including scholars, scientists, and the
common man to try to protect what the commission had fought to earn. Muir evoked powerful
messages through the Sierra Club Bulletin where he wrote “Through all the wonderful, eventful
centuries ... God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease, avalanches, and a
Wolfe, Son of the Wilderness, 270-272.53
Arnold Hague and Gifford Pinchot, “Report of the Special Committee”, May 16, 1896.54

21
thousand straining, leveling tempests and floods; but he cannot save them from fools -- only
Uncle Sam can do that.”55
During the congressional debates, politicians argued both for and against the creation of
these newly sanctioned forest reserves. The largest debate came from the Clark and Lacey
Amendments to the original order issued by President Cleveland. The Clark Amendment was
created on February 28th, 1897 only six days after Cleveland’s executive order and called for the
restoration of the reserves back to public domain. This Amendment passed the Senate on the very
day it was introduced, showing much opposition to the creation of protected lands in the west,
even by those who reside in the Western Frontier. The Lacey Amendment was spurred to56
creation after the Clark Amendment and was strongly supported by Gifford Pinchot. The author
was Congressman John F. Lacey of Iowa. The proposed Lacey Amendment would have given
almost everything that the commission eventually got in the Organic Act of 1897 and gave the
Secretary of the Interior the ability to sell off timber on any forest reservation, make lands that
are deemed more valuable for agriculture eliminated from protection, and set aside land for
mining and domestic purposes. In Pinchot’s words, the Lacey Amendment “would have opened
wide the door to sound forest administration and the practice of Forestry.” Once again a57
thematic difference appears between the philosophies of Pinchot and Muir. Whereas Muir
wanted protection without interference from agriculture and mining, Pinchot saw the importance
John Muir, Our National Parks, 364-36555
Ibid57

22
in making use of the West’s expanse of natural resource wealth while at the same time making
sure it is a maintainable wealth.
The opponents of the Lacey Amendment cited three problems with the Cleveland
Reserves. They are that all use is prevented in the protected lands, there was no notice or
consultation before Cleveland made his order, and they claimed there was never any adequate
inspection and examination of the land. This last stipulation basically discredited the legitimacy58
of the Commission of Forestry. The Lacey Amendment had no chance through Congress while
the Clark Amendment went against everything that the Commission had worked so hard for. In
his last day in Office, President Cleveland on March 4th, 1897 struck down all but one Bill. This
use of presidential veto put conservation on the front page of newspapers around the United
States. An example of such is on the front of the March 5th, 1897 edition of The Chicago59
Tribune that states that the floor of Congress grew “haggard” the morning after Cleveland struck
down multiple appropriation bills.60
At one point in the debates, Pinchot was quoted in newspapers saying sheep did little
damage while grazing out west, something that he had not believed in when talking with Muir
just the year before. This pertained to the Hetch Hetchy Valley, which Muir thought should be
protected along with Yosemite. When Muir saw newspaper article those who were there that day
say he confronted Pinchot in the hotel lobby with fire in his eyes. This was the beginning of the
Ibid58
Ibid, 113.59
"For the Extra Session." The Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1897.60

23
end of the relationship between Muir and Pinchot. This conversation is important because it is61
the beginning of Muir and Pinchot’s fundamental differences, especially within the Hetch Hetchy
Valley.
At the same time that Muir and Pinchot were working with the Commission of Forestry,
Roosevelt was coming off a defeat in the mayoral election in New York. It seemed that
Roosevelt’s political career might be coming to an abrupt end. During this time he still was in
correspondence with a leading figure in conservation, George Bird Grinnell. He discusses the
order given by President Cleveland that reclaimed land out west in order to make forest
reservations. The land though was being reclaimed and would no longer be available to settlers
who wished to build and farm on the land. Roosevelt addresses that other presidents have done
similar things as they leave their office because they will not have to deal with the political
repercussions. Roosevelt also mentions that the order is being challenged in the Senate and that
most are not in favor. This attitude shows that the country is still struggling to catch on to the62
conservation movement. While strides are being made in the direction of protecting land and
resources, many are abstinent to speak up on the issue. Roosevelt, while not as active as Muir
and Pinchot because of their involvement in the Commission and Roosevelt’s fall from politics,
is about to enter this argument again and become a leading role in the push for conservation in
the United States
Theodore Roosevelt and H.W. Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (New62
York: Cooper Square Press, 2001), 166.

24
In the last few years of the 1800’s Roosevelt began his push back into the political world.
He was appointed the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1987, governor of New York in 1898,
and the finally vice president under President McKinley in 1900. During this time, McKinley63
had signed the Sundry Civil Appropriations Act of 1897 on June 4th, 1897 which contained
within it the Forest Service Organic Administration Act of 1897 (Organic Act of 1897). Pinchot
was to go reexamine reserves that had been suspended from protection pending a report on the
conditions of land and forest and also their potential use for commerce, settlement, mining,
grazing, agriculture, and grazing. It was later in 1898 on July, 1st that Pinchot became the chief64
of the Forestry Division, a dream that he had held since starting forestry.65
After McKinley’s assassination on September 14th, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became the
next President of the United States of America. Pinchot saw Roosevelt’s ascension to President
as the moment that conservation needed in politics. Pinchot remarks that it would be “hard to
find a more sympathetic and understanding listener to the cause of forestry, conservation, and
National Parks than Theodore Roosevelt.” Roosevelt inherited a country coming out of the66
Gilded Age of industrialism and urbanization. Put modestly, Roosevelt had a lot of issues that
needed to be handled in order to guide the Nation in a positive direction. Hot political topics of
the time were massively inflating cities as people shifted from rural to urban locations. Also,
robber barons controlled industries such as John D. Rockefeller and Standard oil, J.P. Morgan
Brands, T.R., 400-412.63
Ibid, 136.65
Ibid,188.66

25
and the banks, and Andrew Carnegie and the steel industry. In an address concerning67
conservation during his first term in 1903, Roosevelt sets out different goals for Congress to
achieve such as proper irrigation, more efficient use of rivers as tools of trade, and more
enforcement of law to protect public protected lands. Roosevelt was most influential in the68
political sphere and often used powerful rhetoric while addressing Congress.
In these social, political, class, and economic issues facing the nation, the Conservation
Movement faced some of its greatest opposition. As people move to the cities and out of the rural
areas, they leave behind a land that becomes almost foreign to them. It is these places that
Pinchot, Muir, and Roosevelt seek to protect. Muir saw these wild areas as a place that became
out of the ordinary for many Americans as they moved to the cities. This sentiment is made
obvious in a journal of Muir’s. It is in an excerpt from September 1874 that he says:
“Tell me what you will of the benefactions of city civilization, of the sweet security of
streets- all is part of the natural upgrowth of man towards the high density we hear so
much of. I know that our bodies were made to thrive only in pure air, and the scenes in
which pure air is found. If the death exhalations that brood the broad towns in which we
so fondly compact ourselves were made visible, we should flee as from a plague. All are
more or less sick; there is not a perfectly sane man in San Francisco.”69
It was in an address to Congress on December 3rd, 1901 that Roosevelt brought the
conservation of natural resources to the forefront of politics. After giving a lengthy report on
Morris, Theodore Rex, 20-21.67
Theodore Roosevelt, “Roosevelt’s Message on Conservation”, Roosevelt’s Message on68
Conservation 443. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, 2009.
John Muir and Linnie Marsh Wolfe. John of the Mountains; the Unpublished Journals of John69
Muir, (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1938) 119.

26
trusts in the United States, he struck a new cord as he discussed the importance of conservation.
He spoke of the importance of preserving native flora and fauna and then pleaded that the Bureau
of Forestry be given complete control of the forest reserves. He also asked for presidential power
to give the Department of Agriculture a majority of the reserves, something Pinchot himself was
an extremely large supporter of. Pinchot and Roosevelt had been in correspondence about70
forestry since Roosevelt’s time as governor of New York in 1898.71
At the same time in 1901, Muir was publishing his book titled Our National Parks as a
way to inform the public about the beauty and need for conservation of the nation’s forest
reserves and parks. He remarks at the importance of people visiting these parks and seeing them
not merely as boundless expanses of timber or potential sites for agriculture but as “fountains of
life”.72
In the early summer of 1903, Theodore Roosevelt planned a trip out west and asked John
Muir to be his guide as he stayed in Yosemite. The two shared three days and nights in the Valley
talking about conservation and the National Forests. It was after that trip that Roosevelt
revamped his policy on conservation with help from Gifford Pinchot.73
Pinchot was intent on making the governmental transfer of forest reserves to the
Department of Agriculture in order to put all forestry related issues under one roof. He was very
Morris, Theodore Rex, 76.70
Roosevelt, Autobiography, 204.71
Muir, Our National Parks, 1.72
Muir and Wolfe, John of the Mountains, 427.73

27
adamant in pushing Roosevelt to do so starting in 1901 till it was finally transferred in 1905. He
served on multiple boards to push the arrangements through congress, which was no easy task.
After failing in 1903 to get the transfer done, Pinchot saw the final push for the transfer the first
week of January in 1905 at the Second American Forest Congress in Washington D.C.
Represented here were anyone that had anything to do with the forest reserves including
President Roosevelt, railroad companies, miners, educations, congressmen, scientists, and other
groups that contributed to the need for forestry conservation. The American Forest Congress
went on to deal with forestry as an economic and national issue. Finally on February 1st, 1905,74
The Transfer Act passed quickly through both houses of Congress and was signed by President
Roosevelt. Pinchot became the head of the Bureau of Forestry as it made its transition. Pinchot75
was beginning to get comfortable inside the political sphere, something that would help him
throughout his career.
In 1902 began the most pivotal moment in conservation and the creation of a National
Park Service. A battle between Muir and Pinchot that split the two completely began over San
Francisco’s request to dam the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite to provide water to the city.
Perhaps the last letters written to one another took place later in 1905 as they argued over the
potential damming of the valley. Muir criticizes Pinchot for his support of damming Hetch
Hetchy and says there are plenty of other ways to provide water to San Francisco. In a Sierra76
Club Bulletin from January, 1908 Muir expresses how badly he disagrees with the prospect of
Pinchot, Breaking New Ground, 254.74
Ibid, 256.75
Miller, Gifford Pinchot and Making of Modern Environmentalism, 139.76

28
damming the valley. He refers to the people of San Francisco as monopolizing capitalists and
details how beautiful and captivating the valley is to all those who visit. This debate between77
Muir’s pure idea of conservation as preservation of the wild clashes with Pinchot’s “use nature
efficiently to better the lives of Americans” philosophy and created a schism in the world of
conservation forever. In the eyes of Muir, this intrusion to protected lands was inexcusable. He
writes in his 1912 book The Yosemite “These temple destroyers, devotees of ravaging
commercialism, seem to have a perfect contempt for Nature, and, instead of lifting their eyes to
the God of the mountains, lift them to the Almighty Dollar”. Roosevelt knew Muir’s distaste78
for the dam as early as September of 1907 when he writes Muir a letter about it. He speaks of
how difficult of a decision it is to support the dam because he wants to protect the natural
wonders that places such as Yosemite offer. He then goes on to say that despite his opinions, it
seems that many do not care to protect the valley and see it more useful as a dam.79
While Roosevelt was replaced as President by William Taft in March of 1909, he
remained active in the debates of conservation. The hot debate over the use of public land80
regarding the Hetch Hetchy Valley raged on in Congress. At the same time that newly appointed
Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger and Pinchot were locked in a heated dispute (one that
would see Pinchot removed from his post as Chief Forester in 1910), Muir was given the chance
to show Ballinger and Taft around Yosemite. Muir showed great fervor in his guided tour of the
John Muir, "The Hetch Hetchy Valley." (Sierra Club Bulletin, 1908), 212-220.77
John Muir and Galen A. Rowell. The Yosemite: The Original John Muir Text, (San Francisco:78
Sierra Club Books, 1989), 105.
Roosevelt and Brands, The Selected Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 456.79
Morris, Theodore Rex, 550-551.80

29
park even though he had to deal with constant jests from President Taft about commercializing
the land. During their visit newspapers flocked the party of influential men. Muir though was
able to give the President and Bollinger much to think about after their visit and it seemed that
both were looking for alternatives to the damming of the valley. In the Sunday October 10th,81
1909 issue of The Salt Lake Herald-Republican, a headline reads “Play time is over and Mr. Taft
Goes to Work”. The article then goes on to detail Taft’s last day in Yosemite with Muir and
focused on talks of the Hetch Hetchy Valley project and Muir’s fierce opposition. The debate82
over the damming of the valley was bringing conservation to the front pages around the world.
Muir’s fierce opposition and the conflicts between Bollinger and Pinchot were enough to spread
debate across the nation, especially once Pinchot was discharged as Chief Forester in 1910 by
President Taft.83
The debate over Hetch Hetchy Valley peaked in 1913. This was after a failed attempt at
another presidential term by Roosevelt who kept conservation as a priority in his campaign as
Pinchot carried on his work started under Roosevelt’s presidency. The National Archives holds
many documents both for and against the construction of the dam. While some argued for the
need of water in San Francisco others petitioned against it. A petition against the Raker Bill came
from the University of Oklahoma and stated that the commercial invasion of the protected lands
"Play Time Is over and Mr. Taft Goes to Work." The Salt Lake Herald-Republican, October 10,82
1909.

30
was unnecessary and only being done because it was the cheapest option. Many women’s84
clubs, in an effort to extend themselves to the political sphere of the nation, weighed in on the
subject and wrote letters to Congress. The Graffort Club of Portsmouth, NH wrote in a resolution
saying that the Valley was an important feature of Yosemite and that destroying it was destroying
a beautiful playground that belonged to the entire American public.85
The opposition to the Raker Bill was fierce, especially from the members of the Sierra
club but it was not enough to stop it. The Bill quickly swept through the House on September 3rd,
1912 and then went to the Senate where debates carried on for three months. It was in these86
debates that Pinchot testified for the damming of the valley. During a 1913 testimony before the
House Committee on Public Lands, Pinchot engages in conversation with California
Congressman and father of the Raker Bill John Raker and San Francisco Mayor James Phelan.
Pinchot during his testimony says, “Now, the fundamental principle of the whole conservation
policy is that of use, to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which
it will best serve the most people, and I think there can be no question at all but that in this case
we have an instance in which all weighty considerations demand the passage of the bill.” Once87
again showing his ideology of use before preservation, Pinchot extends the rift between himself
“Petition from the University of Oklahoma Against the So-Called Hetch Hetchy Bill (H.R.84
7207)”, December, 1913
Howard, Anne, “Resolution from the Graffort Club of Portsmouth, New Hampshire Against85
Granting San Francisco the Hetch Hetchy Valley”, February 4, 191
House Committee on the Public Lands, Hetch Hetchy Dam Site, 63rd Cong., 1st sess. (25–2887
June 1913; 7 July 1913), (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 25–29, 165–66,
213–14, 235–38.

31
and Muir. Finally on December 9th, 1913 the Raker Bill passed through Senate and then was
signed on December 19th by President Woodrow Wilson. The Raker Bill grants San Francisco
land from Yosemite to be used for “other purposes” pertaining to the creation of a reservoir in the
Hetch Hetchy Valley.88
The ten years of debate over the Hetch Hetchy valley between Roosevelt, Muir, and
Pinchot brought conservation to the forefront of American economics, social lives, and politics.
The desires for preservation of places such as the Hetch Hetchy Valley were amplified after the
damming. A new generation of conservationists was rising up off the coattails of Muir, Pinchot,
and Roosevelt to lead the next round of conservation debates. It was only three years later when
Congress signed into action The Organic Act of 1916, creating the National Park Service and
outlining how the parks should be ran. In the wake up the Hetch Hetchy Valley, the creation of89
the NPS created a new realm of conservation in America. Unfortunately John Muir would never
see the creation of the National Parks Service as he passed away on Christmas Eve, 1914.90
Conclusion
The history of the start of the Conservation Movement and the creation of the National
Park Service can be attributed to the intense, tireless, and often unwilling compromise between
John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt. It is from their three different philosophies
that the United States evolved from an industrializing force that was consuming natural resources
H.R. 7207, 63rd Congress, (1913).88
“Act to Establish a National Park Service (Organic Act)”, 1916.89

32
recklessly to a country that takes pride in conserving its natural resources and preserving natural
habitats and ecosystems. While the United States still has a lot of issues to work on regarding the
treatment of the environment, it is still the passionate work done by these three men that continue
to motivate the conservationists of today’s generations. From Pinchot’s strong work ethic, to
Roosevelt’s power over a crowd, and Muir’s ability to capture the beauty of the Yosemite Valley
in his words, these three figures have contributed more than any others in the Conservation
Movement.
The greatest information presented to prove the Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt are the
reason for the Conservation Movement and the creation of the National Parks are the arguments
regarding the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in the Yosemite Park. In the early parts of
their relationships with one another, they are not debating much besides the fact that some sort of
conservation needs to take root in America. It is during the early part of the 1900’s that their
individual personalities fully mature and a schism appears, separating the main philosophies of
each man. Whereas Muir and Pinchot respected one another throughout out their careers, their
concepts of conservation continued to diversify. While Muir became more and more set on
preservation, Pinchot was pushing for the growth of the Bureau of Forestry in order to push his
belief of useful management of the forests and natural resources. Roosevelt’s letters of
correspondence to Muir show sympathy to his cause but his close connection with Pinchot his
entire presidency and even after being in office show his thoughts on the forests being used for
profit while still maintaining them as a renewable resource.

33
This study clarifies the origin of the Conservation Movement and then the reason for the
creation of the National Parks. While other people were involved in the movement and debates
throughout the country, Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt are to be held in the highest standing
passionately fighting for what they believed in. It was through their sometimes unwilling
compromise of philosophies that America was able to create legislation to protect breathtaking
valleys like Yosemite or the wide expanse of the Badlands of South Dakota through the National
Park Service.
There are many directions that further research can be done on this topic. An interesting
study that builds from this one is looking at the status of the National Park Service from 1916 till
today. While the basic institutions that control the NPS are all nearly the same, new parks in
different areas of America have been added to the list of protected lands and landmarks. The NPS
also is home to key historical monuments such as Ford’s Theater and the Jefferson Monument in
Washington D.C. The National Parks Service also faced tough times along with the rest of the
country during the Great Depression and World War II. Franklin Roosevelt was a supporter of
the parks and created many jobs revamping the National Park’s roads and facilities. One could
compare how FDR’s New Deal changes to the nation affected the National Park Service. Another
interesting study that could be done on the topic is the amount of traffic and use the parks are
getting these days. The fight for conservation was not an easy one so it would be interesting to
see how many people Muir, Pinchot, and Roosevelt inspire to go out and be active within
America’s parks. Future historians can ask if the National Parks are worth the money and land
set aside for their use or if parks for preservation just cost the government money.

34
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June 1913; 7 July 1913), (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), 25–29, 165–
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Howard, Anne, “Resolution from the Graffort Club of Portsmouth, New Hampshire Against
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