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La computadora
El documento describe los principales componentes de una computadora, incluyendo la caja o gabinete, los microprocesadores, puertos y conexiones, dispositivos de entrada como teclados y pantallas, dispositivos de salida como monitores e impresoras, dispositivos de almacenamiento como memoria principal, discos duros y unidades de disco, y unidades de medidas de almacenamiento como bits, bytes, kilobytes y más.
Triptico citrar ingles
The Center for Research on Treatment of Wastewater and Hazardous Waste (CITRAR-UNI) was established in 2011 to promote scientific research on alternative wastewater and hazardous waste treatment techniques. It operates a pilot wastewater treatment plant that uses various treatment stages including a septic tank, anaerobic digester, settlers, stabilization ponds, and aquaculture units. Treated water is used for irrigation and aquaculture. CITRAR-UNI also supports research theses and provides education on wastewater treatment.
Fases del rup
El documento describe las 4 fases del proceso RUP (Rational Unified Process): 1) Inicio, donde se hace un plan de fases y se identifica el alcance del proyecto, 2) Elaboración, donde se completa un plan de proyecto y los casos de uso, 3) Construcción, donde se desarrolla un producto operativo y eficiente junto con un manual de usuario, y 4) Transición, donde se instala el producto y se entrena a los usuarios.
Viaje educativo- Entre Ríos
El documento presenta una breve descripción del Palacio San Carlos, mencionando algunas de sus características como el antiguo hospital, el aserradero y una apícola donde se crían abejas y se produce miel, la cual y otros productos como polen y cremas se vendían en el lugar.
Fabiana e Yasmin Cristine
A Segunda Guerra Mundial envolveu 72 nações, matou mais de 50 milhões de pessoas e foi a maior catástrofe provocada pelo homem. Ela foi total, atingindo civis e cidades, e mobilizou 110 milhões de pessoas, das quais apenas 30% não sofreram ferimentos ou morte. Os Aliados, liderados por EUA, Inglaterra, França e União Soviética, derrotaram o Eixo formado por Itália, Alemanha e Japão após confrontos na Europa, África e Pacífico.
Recommended
La computadora
El documento describe los principales componentes de una computadora, incluyendo la caja o gabinete, los microprocesadores, puertos y conexiones, dispositivos de entrada como teclados y pantallas, dispositivos de salida como monitores e impresoras, dispositivos de almacenamiento como memoria principal, discos duros y unidades de disco, y unidades de medidas de almacenamiento como bits, bytes, kilobytes y más.
Triptico citrar ingles
The Center for Research on Treatment of Wastewater and Hazardous Waste (CITRAR-UNI) was established in 2011 to promote scientific research on alternative wastewater and hazardous waste treatment techniques. It operates a pilot wastewater treatment plant that uses various treatment stages including a septic tank, anaerobic digester, settlers, stabilization ponds, and aquaculture units. Treated water is used for irrigation and aquaculture. CITRAR-UNI also supports research theses and provides education on wastewater treatment.
Fases del rup
El documento describe las 4 fases del proceso RUP (Rational Unified Process): 1) Inicio, donde se hace un plan de fases y se identifica el alcance del proyecto, 2) Elaboración, donde se completa un plan de proyecto y los casos de uso, 3) Construcción, donde se desarrolla un producto operativo y eficiente junto con un manual de usuario, y 4) Transición, donde se instala el producto y se entrena a los usuarios.
Viaje educativo- Entre Ríos
El documento presenta una breve descripción del Palacio San Carlos, mencionando algunas de sus características como el antiguo hospital, el aserradero y una apícola donde se crían abejas y se produce miel, la cual y otros productos como polen y cremas se vendían en el lugar.
Fabiana e Yasmin Cristine
A Segunda Guerra Mundial envolveu 72 nações, matou mais de 50 milhões de pessoas e foi a maior catástrofe provocada pelo homem. Ela foi total, atingindo civis e cidades, e mobilizou 110 milhões de pessoas, das quais apenas 30% não sofreram ferimentos ou morte. Os Aliados, liderados por EUA, Inglaterra, França e União Soviética, derrotaram o Eixo formado por Itália, Alemanha e Japão após confrontos na Europa, África e Pacífico.
Samyra e Yasmin
Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, os países vencedores estabeleceram sua influência sobre diferentes regiões da Europa e iniciaram a Guerra Fria, enquanto muitos países europeus sofreram grandes perdas econômicas e territoriais. A ONU foi criada em 1945 para promover a paz mundial e evitar futuros conflitos.
Welcome to khehranala resort
Khehranala Resort welcomes visitors with information about its location and amenities. The resort is situated on the coast of Goa, India, providing guests access to beaches and outdoor activities. Visitors can enjoy swimming, boating, fishing and other water sports during their stay.
Poesia k
Este poema expresa los sentimientos profundos de amor y apego hacia una persona especial. A pesar de los altibajos y cambios en la relación, el autor siente un fuerte vínculo y compromiso con esta persona, a quien considera su mejor amiga. Recuerda con cariño los momentos compartidos y la magia que sintió cuando estaban juntos, aunque ahora parezca que para la otra persona todo eso ya no significa nada.
Administración de sistemas de información (autoguardado) 2
Segundazo es una empresa de reventa de computadores que desea reemplazar el 80% de sus sistemas existentes con una nueva arquitectura de sistemas. El director de información Beatriz Helena completó un plan en 4 meses para esta transición. Se espera que el proyecto se complete en 18 meses. Los factores críticos de éxito para el éxito de la nueva arquitectura incluyen el reemplazo de sistemas y la alta tasa de rotación del personal de TI. Segundazo probablemente utilizará el ciclo de vida del
Deployed spouse dinner flyer (feb 2012)
The Fort Rucker Dining Facility is inviting deployed spouses and their families to a free dinner and is allowing friends and extended family to join for $5 per meal. The event is located behind the Colton-Fortenberry Gym and those interested can contact CPT Blevins at 334-255-8938 for more information.
Intermedio tardio
Durante el Período Intermedio Tardío en la costa norte de Perú florecieron los estados regionales de Chimú, Chincha y Huancas. Chimú fue un estado militarista gobernado por sacerdotes y burocracia, mientras que Chincha se caracterizó por un intenso comercio. En el valle del Mantaro se ubicó el estado de los Huancas, dedicados a la agricultura y ganadería, con principales ciudades como Hatunmarca.
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Ebd bos
O documento discute como Jesus cumpriu as profecias do Antigo Testamento. Ele identifica figuras e instituições proféticas como o cordeiro pascal, o tabernáculo e o sacerdócio que apontavam para Cristo. Também explica profecias diretas sobre o nascimento, vida, morte e ressurreição de Jesus encontradas nas Escrituras.
Programa dia da mulher março 2012
O Hotel Rural Maria da Fonte está oferecendo um programa especial para o Dia da Mulher entre 3 e 4 de Março de 2012, que inclui uma noite de alojamento com pequeno-almoço e jantar comemorativo por 108 euros para dois adultos, com animação e sorteio durante o jantar.
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El documento define el término Web 2.0 como aplicaciones web que facilitan el compartir información y la colaboración entre usuarios. Algunos ejemplos son comunidades web, redes sociales, blogs y wikis. Tim O'Reilly acuñó el término Web 2.0 en 2003 para describir servicios en internet que permiten la interacción y expresión de usuarios.
Physiology of Chemical Sensation of smell.pdf
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
A Classical Text Review on Basavarajeeyam
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Non-respiratory Functions of the Lungs.pdf
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptx
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• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Light House Retreats: Plant Medicine Retreat Europe
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Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, os países vencedores estabeleceram sua influência sobre diferentes regiões da Europa e iniciaram a Guerra Fria, enquanto muitos países europeus sofreram grandes perdas econômicas e territoriais. A ONU foi criada em 1945 para promover a paz mundial e evitar futuros conflitos.
Welcome to khehranala resort
Khehranala Resort welcomes visitors with information about its location and amenities. The resort is situated on the coast of Goa, India, providing guests access to beaches and outdoor activities. Visitors can enjoy swimming, boating, fishing and other water sports during their stay.
Poesia k
Este poema expresa los sentimientos profundos de amor y apego hacia una persona especial. A pesar de los altibajos y cambios en la relación, el autor siente un fuerte vínculo y compromiso con esta persona, a quien considera su mejor amiga. Recuerda con cariño los momentos compartidos y la magia que sintió cuando estaban juntos, aunque ahora parezca que para la otra persona todo eso ya no significa nada.
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Deployed spouse dinner flyer (feb 2012)
The Fort Rucker Dining Facility is inviting deployed spouses and their families to a free dinner and is allowing friends and extended family to join for $5 per meal. The event is located behind the Colton-Fortenberry Gym and those interested can contact CPT Blevins at 334-255-8938 for more information.
Intermedio tardio
Durante el Período Intermedio Tardío en la costa norte de Perú florecieron los estados regionales de Chimú, Chincha y Huancas. Chimú fue un estado militarista gobernado por sacerdotes y burocracia, mientras que Chincha se caracterizó por un intenso comercio. En el valle del Mantaro se ubicó el estado de los Huancas, dedicados a la agricultura y ganadería, con principales ciudades como Hatunmarca.
Mocion sobre fiscalizacion de cuentas
El Grupo Municipal de Unión Progreso y Democracia solicita a la Cámara de Cuentas de la Comunidad de Madrid que realice una fiscalización de las cuentas del Ayuntamiento de Parla de los años 2006 a 2010, debido a las declaraciones contradictorias sobre la situación financiera del municipio y la necesidad de transparencia, y que elabore un informe sobre la situación económico-financiera real del Ayuntamiento.
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O documento discute como Jesus cumpriu as profecias do Antigo Testamento. Ele identifica figuras e instituições proféticas como o cordeiro pascal, o tabernáculo e o sacerdócio que apontavam para Cristo. Também explica profecias diretas sobre o nascimento, vida, morte e ressurreição de Jesus encontradas nas Escrituras.
Programa dia da mulher março 2012
O Hotel Rural Maria da Fonte está oferecendo um programa especial para o Dia da Mulher entre 3 e 4 de Março de 2012, que inclui uma noite de alojamento com pequeno-almoço e jantar comemorativo por 108 euros para dois adultos, com animação e sorteio durante o jantar.
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El documento define el término Web 2.0 como aplicaciones web que facilitan el compartir información y la colaboración entre usuarios. Algunos ejemplos son comunidades web, redes sociales, blogs y wikis. Tim O'Reilly acuñó el término Web 2.0 en 2003 para describir servicios en internet que permiten la interacción y expresión de usuarios.
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Physiology of Chemical Sensation of smell.pdf
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
A Classical Text Review on Basavarajeeyam
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Non-respiratory Functions of the Lungs.pdf
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptx
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
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Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Novas diretrizes da OMS para os cuidados perinatais de mais qualidade
Novas diretrizes da OMS para os cuidados perinatais de mais qualidadeProf. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
The Electrocardiogram - Physiologic Principles
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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Efficacy of Avartana Sneha in Ayurveda
Avartana Sneha is a unique method of Preparation of Sneha Kalpana in Ayurveda, mainly it is indicated for the Vataja rogas.
Physiology of Special Chemical Sensation of Taste
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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