computers and disabled v er2

WWHICH HUMAN AND TECHNICALHICH HUMAN AND TECHNICAL
FACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDEREDFACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED
WHEN MAKING COMPUTERS MOREWHEN MAKING COMPUTERS MORE
ACCESSIBLE FOR INTELLECTUALLYACCESSIBLE FOR INTELLECTUALLY
DISABLED INDISABLED IN AACCRA,CCRA, GGHANA?HANA?

Preface
This has been a somewhat theoretical paper, in part because of my way of doing the
research. I hope to do a more practical study in the future, as long as the requirements for
theory and empirics are met.
I feel that I managed to verbalize my thoughts about computer access in a
different culture, and hope this paper will be useful for others.
When I first started to write this paper, I wanted to do a technical and practical
paper. But the technical factors turned out to be very difficult, and the technical parts
were not as easy as I thought. In Ghana, you have less technical resources to use. So this
paper turned out to be a more generalized factors description.
I have used the word IBID in this paper, meaning “same author, same year”.
2

Table of contents
1.0 Introduction......................................................4
2.0 Methods for data collection.............................6
2.1 Interview.....................................................6
2.2 Observation................................................7
2.3 Sources of error..........................................8
3.0 Presentation of data and analysis...................9
3.1 Motivation and familiar elements...............9
3.2 Availability.................................................11
3.3 Culture........................................................12
3.4 Family and relatives...................................14
3.5 Carl.............................................................15
Motivation, family and relatives......................15
Access and software settings............................16
Assessment.........................................................17
General observations about Carl.....................19
Assessment................................................19
Culture......................................................20
4.0 Summary............................................................22
References.................................................................23
Keywords...................................................................25
Attachment 1: Letter to Carl’s guardian...............26
Attachment 2: Observation.....................................27
3

1.0 Introduction
The problem for discussion in this paper is:
WHICH HUMAN AND TECHNICAL FACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED
WHEN MAKING COMPUTERS MORE ACCESSIBLE FOR
INTELLECTUALLY DISABLED IN ACCRA, GHANA?
I was doing my practical studies in a school for intellectually disabled pupils in
Accra, Ghana. Therefore it was of interest to me how I could use my knowledge to make
computers more accessible for intellectually disabled, especially for a pupil I called Carl.
Intellectually disabled is still called mentally disabled in some parts of Ghana, I will be
using the term intellectually disabled in this paper. The last part of this paper is about
how computers can be customized for Carl and other individuals.
Carl is a student at the New Horizon Special School in Accra, which is a special
school and workshop (and some parts of it can be described as a Norwegian day center)
for intellectually disabled.
I have anonymused information in this paper, to protect the privacy of those I got
the information from and those described. I never like to say that something is certain,
because it is always a possibility for those involved to be identified, but I am very sure
that no private information will be identified. To ensure this, I also had to leave out some
information about Carl. I had to write something in general, because the things he was
interested in, and liked could identify him.
I will not be covering the subject of why students should have access to
computers, how useful they can be as learning tools et cetera. As my mentor humorously
remarked, someone who writes his paper with only pen and paper (which was the most
used method) should say why others need computers. The usability of computers has
been throughout covered and would be beyond the scope of this paper to cover. See
Hooper and Umansky (2004), especially page 190 and Befring and Tangen (2004),
4

especially page 63. Though it is not a perfect solution for everything, many students will
have good use of it (Hooper and Umansky (2004:190), Befring and Tangen (2004:63)).
The reason I choose the problem for discussion making computers accessible, is
because I together with a friend have donated and delivered computers to schools in
Ghana, which gave me experience with computers and the culture. I was also motivated
by that I like to work with so called other cultures and computers, and I hope my
experience can be put to use. I was bound to write a paper about my practical studies in
Ghana, though I hope to one day be working with people from other cultures.
This paper has been a useful experience for me. I also hope it can be useful for
others working with people from Ghanaian cultures, and maybe also other cultures in
West-African cities, especially those working with making computers more accessible.
The reason for saying cities, is because conditions in the cities and the rural areas can be
very different, like described by Johannessen (2007). Situation a Community Based
Rehabilitation (CBR) program in cites like Accra, has also become difficult according to
Kassha, because of other ideals in rural community's (2006).
Specifically this could be used at special schools and other places, like institutions,
where making computers more accessible for intellectually disabled is desired.
This paper will focus on the cultural differences in Norway and Ghana, because I
found it important to know about the different appreciation of family, pedagogies and
tradition. Even though cultural differences can be very contrasting, this does not mean
that individual differences could be even bigger and more important (Hanssen
2007:5,6,67).
When gathering information for this paper, I read many books about the subject,
in addition to carrying out mostly unstructured interviews and observations.
Because I am not so good with the collection and objective presentation of
information, the data collection was minimal. My main source of information was
therefore literature. I focused on literature about the topics of motivation and familiar
elements, availability, culture, family and relatives, and software and assessment.
5

2.0 Methods for data collection
In my research I have mainly used unstructured methods of collecting data, but the
principles and the theory (generalizations about a phenomenon) of the more structured
methods can be useful. Here I will present the theoretical and practical aspects of my data
collection, while what was specifically observed and asked will be presented in chapter 3.
I have used the word data and information, but they both mean the same.
2.1 Interview
When I carried out the unstructured interviews, I saw it as essential that all the
information that I received was treated anonymously. Most of the information I got was
in informal and unstructured settings. Therefore it became important to leave out personal
information in the data presentation, to protect Carl and his family’s privacy. The
informal settings also left little opportunity to inform anybody about the anonymisation,
expect for Carl’s guardian (the one responsible for Carl). This is described in the letter
requesting permission to include Carl in this paper, see attachment 2.
The advantage of an interview is that you can receive more information when
there is something you do not understand, by asking follow up questions. This should at
least be true in the more unstructured interviews (where all the questions are set). You
can also clarify misunderstandings, especially relating to your questions in a better way
then in an observation (where you are not participating). One can also get interpretations
and information one would not be shown in a observation. Silverman says interviews:
“[…] may provide access to the meanings people attribute to their experiences […]”
(1997:100). I mostly carried out unstructured and unplanned conversations as basis in my
interviews.
Under the interview it is very important to pay closely attention to the interview
person, so that one can ask follow up questions to fill in gaps of missing information
(Dalland 2007:133).
6

2.2 Observation
During all data collection one will always use observation to certain extent (Dalland
2007:179), though in a less structured way. Therefore knowledge about observation can
be useful even though using other methods (ibid:179).
The advantage of observation is that one can see the occurrences and
phenomenons directly. Analyzing information to find out what the interview person
objectively saw is not necessary, although what is objective always is a matter of opinion.
I saw this as an advantage in Ghana, where I found that culture and language is very
different from Norway (with exceptions as always). English words where used in a
different way then I and other Norwegians where used to. By observing I saw how
relevant expressions and words where used. This made it easier for me to understand
these expressions and words later, when used in interviews. My data collection therefore,
in practical terms, begun with observation.
According to Dalland it is important to state why one wants to observe
(2007:151). This is some of the reason that I find it important to state why I wanted to
carry out observation. Dalland also states that many people dislike to be studied by
observation and it can be considered as trespassing to them (ibid:180). That is why I from
the beginning tried to inform that I wanted to observer Carl, by contacting the
management and writing to Carl’s guardian. In addition I tried to inform Carl about this.
The reason I did not inform ahead of each observation, was because I was afraid to
influence the observation, while those observed would feel it was less of trespassing if
they where not reminded that they where being observed. This is of course a concern
ethically and was evaluated based on the individual’s outlook on the situation and
observation.
A phenomena called the be positive effect, which Løkken & Søbestad
(1999:56,57) (in Dalland 2007:199) has described, can make health workers look mostly
for the positive. The negative things are ignored in the observation. I have experienced
this my self, as I before I started my health worker education, mostly saw much of the
negative when observing “clients”. This lead to that I tried to compensate, by forcing
myself to focus on positive things in my research. This has now leaded to that I feel that I
have focused too much on it in my observations the last year.
7

2.3 Sources of error
One of the possibly biggest sources of error in my data collection could be defined as the
cultural one. I was in a place far from Norway, and certainly had to consider this. Both
when it comes to language, verbal and non-verbal and the way of doing things. I reduced
this by reading about the culture, and by talking and interacting with people every day.
Other factors that affects a observation according to Dalland, will be noted in the
following. Since observation always is used, no matter which method you use, these
factors will be important in all methods of data collection, like interviews.
The first factor he describes, is availability for information (ibid:198). This can be
described as how ready you are to receive information, like having your glasses on,
which I need when observing from afar. The next factor is that of the first impression.
Dalland says it never can be recreated, and can easily be overemphasized (Dalland:198-
199). One way to correct this, is by noting just as much information during all
observation phases (ibid:198-199).
My structured observation ended quickly after Carl had finished his last objective,
which could have left me with a strong last impression. Dalland warns that the last
impression can be just as strong as the firs (2007:199).
The next factor is the charm effect (ibid:199). This can simply be described as
putting feelings in the observation, which one must recognize that happens. Just as we
should recognize personal relations (ibid:200), which is the next factor. If you for
example feel sympathy whit the person observed, you might describe him in a bit to un-
objective way.
8

3 Presentation of data and analysis
In this chapter I will present data and analyze it. The topics motivation and familiar
elements, availability, culture and family and relatives will be discussed with general
considerations. Here I will present some of my own experience with computer access.
Under the heading “Carl” I will discuss the individual implications of computer access
for Carl. Here I will also present the data mostly collected about Carl.
3.1 Motivation and familiar elements
Here I will discuss attitudes and motivation and how to facilitate it in a teaching situation.
I spoke to a friend of mine, who was a teacher in Ghana, about computer use. He said that
some people in Ghana say they do not need computers. They felt that they did not need to
learn about them.
I imagine some of the reason that some feel it is unnecessary, is because they
cannot see its usage area, like what it can be used for in their everyday lives.
In other words, it could be and advantage to let the pupils and other users (of the
computer) see what they specifically can use the computer for, before they decide if they
want to learn how to use it. According to Befring and Tangen, one does indeed learn
more when doing something concrete, in a context (2004:61). Effective learning takes
place in a substantial or social setting (ibid:61)). This would be relevant both when
motivating pupils and their parents. This since family can mean much more and influence
each other more in non-western family’s then in Norwegian (Eriksen and Sørheim
2003:154).
When I visited a computer school in Tamale (in Ghana), I saw an instruction
manual for learning to use a word processing program. The manual at one point
instructed the user to write a text about Tamale, to learn how to use the program. I found
this text very interesting and it confirmed what I already had learned there (about there
not being so much to see there), and I learned something entirely new (about the national
park)1
. I believe that if one uses local examples, the motivation will increase to use
1
The part of the manual said this:
“Copy the following text exactly:
Tamale
Tamale is hot, flat and incredibly dusty.
9

computers. Letting the pupils solve practical everyday problems, might also increase
motivation. Befring and Tangen also say that learning is dependent on what the students
interests and wishes are (Befring & Tangen 2004:54). Davis says that it is important to
use a personal problem when doing exercises (1995:165).
By focusing on the known or something positive, or both, Befring and Tangen say
that you achieve a side effect of diminishing the negative sides (Befring (2004) in Befring
and Tangen (2004:54)). I understand this as that focus on what the students can do is
important. Maybe it can make the things they could not do before, possible?
This could then also be true for a computer program a pupil knows well. So if one
knows a program well, and the pupil likes it, maybe one should continue to use it. Then
one might also get better at other programs? Another way to do this could be to change
the way the pupil does the program, introducing new elements in it, changing difficulty
level, and changing the speed of it and so on, to create new elements to learn. According
to Hooper and Umansky, the so called presentations options should be evaluated
(2004:199-202). Among others, this is the control: “[…] of difficulty level, presentation
pace, and content being presented” (2004:202). Some programs can remember where the
user stopped the lesson (ibid:202), possibly preserving motivation by starting in a
familiar place, or the appropriate level, in the program. This would however require that
the student is able to remember where he was the last time. If not, it might be better that
the student starts at the same, familiar, start point.
It looks almost like one of the most beautiful construction sites of the world. Tamale has a rather
povincial atmosphere. For travelers it holds little of interest. But the shortcoming of Tamale are largely
compensated by a friendly atmosphere.
The people of Tamale are very friendly towards foreigners. It is a pleasure to visit the local people
of Tamale.
[...]
Mole National Park
Mole National Park is the largest game reserve in Ghana. More than 90 mammal and 300
bird species have been recorded in Mole”.
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Another familiar and well known element could be to play a clapping-sound for
the pupil . This should be done every time it is appropriate to give a reward. The
clapping-rhythm “cha cha cha-cha-cha” is used to emphasize a good performance at New
Horizon. If this is recorded, it could be played every time the pupil does a program well.
It can be in incorporated in the learning-program.
To record a sound in Windows, go to “Accessory” and choose “Sound recorder”.
You will need a microphone to record sound. After recording, you can save2
and play it
with the same program. If you keep “sound recorder” open in a window, you can easily
play the sound by clicking the space-bar on the keyboard every time you want to hear the
sound.
Another familiar way of doing the instructions, is by using familiar elements in
manuals and assignments given in computer- classes. Known pictures can also be sett as
the background picture on the computer. This can be done by “right – clicking” on the
existing background image in Windows, and choose “properties”. Then choose
“desktop”, and click “browse” to select the image of choice.
3.2 Availability
When working to make computers more accessible, it could serve the purpose to know
something about availability in general. I will only present a small amount of statistics
here, since placing to much emphasis on it will go beyond the scope of this paper.
When I told a friend who has been living in Ghana most of his life that I wanted
to write about making computers accessible for intellectually disabled, he said that
computers are for the rich in Ghana. It is not so easy to find precise and updated statistics
about the number of computers in Ghana. In 2002 there was 2 computers per 1000
inhabitants in the Least Developed Countries (LDC) according to International
Telecommunications Union (ITU 2002)3
. Ghana is not a LDC, although it is surrounded
by LDC south of Sahara, see Figure 2. In Norway there were 490 computers per 1000
inhabitants in 2002 (ITU 2002). This means that almost 1 of 2 people in Norway had
computers, but only 1 of 500 in the LDC.
2
One should “save” in CD-quality. Choose “CD-quality” when saving the file.
3
In St. mld. Nr. 19 (2002-2003)
11

Some updated statistics about Internet activity is available for free trough the ITU
website. In 2007 there were about 81% Internet users in Norway, but only about 3%
Internet users in Ghana – about 30 times more Internet
users in Norway. There was 34% Internet subscribers in
Norway, and only 0,1% in Ghana (ITU 2007). This
means there are 340 times more Internet subscribers in
Norway.
So assuming that:
1.Ghana does not have many more computers
then surrounding countries
2. Internet activity has some association to computers access,
there are much fewer people who has and uses computers in Ghana then in Norway.
Internet use (2007)
Norway Ghana
80,9% 2,80%
Internet subscribers (2007)
Norway Ghana
34% 0.1%
Computers per 1000 inhabitants (2002)
Norway L.D.C.
490 2
Norway
~30 times more Internet users
~340 times more Internet subscribers
~245 times more computers then in L.D.C.
Table 1: Computers and Internet numbers
3.3 Culture
There are many local languages in Ghana, buy English is officially used. New Horizon
also officially use English in teaching and computer software there is also in English. If
one could get software in a pupil’s local language, it might increase motivation and make
it more easy to use for those that want to learn to use computers. This could be described
as focusing on something well know, as mentioned to be important for motivation. It is
12
Figure 1: LDC countries
(dark colored)
Ghana

also easier to get proficient in reading and writing a unknown language if one first gets
proficient in your mother tongue according to Eriksen and Sørheim (2003:147).
Again, I find it very important state that so called cultural factors, that will be
described later, are not individual factors. The reason I find this important to stress, is
because of the mistakes one can make in just looking at the cultural differences in general
(Hansen 2005:5,6,67). I personally experienced this, when explaining to a friend and
generalizing about the Norwegian culture. My friend was from Ghana, and I wanted to
give him a 10 minute explanation of the culture. I told him how the Norwegians in
general do not greet (compared to Ghana)4
, and mostly only contact each other when
there was something strictly business. I told him how Norwegians mostly do the things
they feel are right. They do not think so much about what it means to the family.
To see these differences, you might have to know something about Ghanaian and
African culture. Then you might see, that if you make the assumptions general enough,
this can be described as correct for the Norwegian culture. The average Norwegian might
not greet my friend as much as in Ghana. But if he stops greeting everybody, then people
might look at him strangely. So on closer inspection you also see that it can lead to my
friend making a lot of mistakes in Norway, if he goes there. So these so called cultural
differences might be something that does not apply at all for the person you are working
with.
Another factor worth taking notice of in West-Africa, is which traditions are
important, according to Lonely Planet (2003:39,42). “Although rush to modernisation is I
irretrievably changing West-Africa and attitudes are becoming more liberal, especially in
cities, social mores remain quite conservative” (ibid:42). This is also confirmed by
Ghanian's themselves. Kuada and Chachah say:” […] Ghanaians show appreciation to
foreigners who exhibit significant interest in there culture and […] adjust to theme”
(1999:(preface)). Therefore I was eager to find to find out which traditions it could be of
purpose to learn. Both to be polite and be able to show respect, but also to see what pupils
are accustomed to in a teaching situation.
I have discussed with a university college lecturer the differences between
teaching (and therefore possibly implications in learning) in Africa and Norway. He says
4
By greeting I mean to say hello, god morning and so on.
13

that one in many schools in Africa seem to be more accustomed to repeating the learning
material5
, instead of analyzing and adapting it to problem solving. This was also
described in the before mentioned manual for the word processing program. In the
teachers guide to the manual, written by Dutch volunteers, they confirm that there could
be a difference between the (mostly western) schools way of teaching and in Ghana. Eva
Johannessen (2007:123,202) also confirms this in hear book about cultural differences in,
among others, Africa. According to Nukunya, this is because of that academic skills has a
higher status, and because the government wants to uniform the schools system. Because
there is “[…] insufficient qualified tutors […]” (2003:133-134), practical training is
difficult (Nukunya 2003:133-134).
Tradition and customs seem to be much more important in Ghana then in Norway
(Nukunya 2003:6-8). This is something one gets a good understanding of after reading
the book “Tradition and change in Ghana” (Nukunya 2003:18-19). So, as mentioned
when it comes to motivation, this is important to consider. For example when doing
observations, one should be aware of this.
3.4 Family and relatives
Family and relatives can value the family differently then Norwegians (especially in non-
western families). This is already mentioned in the attitudes and motivation topic, and
according to Eriksen and Sørheim (2003:159) this also includes caring for intellectually
disabled people. This is something that I have experienced to a very high degree in
Ghana. This is also confirmed by Kuada and Chachah: “The family therefore limits,
influences and, in some situations, determines the individual’s activities in society”
(1999:73) in Ghana. So social workers and others from countries like Norway should be
aware that the family can play a much more important role for people in Ghana.
Specifically when working with computers, this means that family members should be
included in teaching pupils to use computers. This is already encouraged at the New
Horizon Special School: “Parents are encouraged to take active part in the schools
activities and educational programmes […]” says their introductory brochure. The family
should therefore also be used in the before mentioned familiar examples.
5
Which another teacher theorized was mostly because of the lack of books.
14

3.5 Carl
So how does this all relate to the individual? I have cooperated with a pupil who I call
Carl. In the following chapters a description of Carl and how I tried to make computers
more accessible for him will be given.
Carl is 15 years old, and participates in a class for autistic. According to Hooper
and Umansky Autistic spectrum disorder is: “[…] a developmental disability that
significantly affects verbal and non-verbal communications […] adversely affects a
child’s educational performance […]”. Other factors are: “[…] resistance to
environmental change or change in daily routines […] (2004:26).
The reason I say I have cooperated with Carl is not just because it sounds good. I
think the goal should be to cooperate with the pupil as much as possible, and I want to
reflect this in my writing. Secondly, I believe I have learned something from Carl. Mostly
these are things I do not know that I have learned, so called silent or hidden knowledge,
but I believe it still can be useful to me.
I choose to cooperate with Carl at first because I like him. He did not have any
challenging behavior, like others in his class, akin to violent pinching, punching or biting.
He also has a verbal language that is understandable when listening closely, because his
speech can sometimes be a little unclear.
Carl is already participating in the computer class, which means that he is
scheduled to go to the computer room two times a week, for half an hour.
Motivation, family and relatives
In practical terms, a way to motivate Carl for using computers is to let him write a letter.
It could either be to his grandparents in Ghana, or to his parents who are in Europe. The
advantage of writing a plain paper letter, for example to his grandparents, is that he can
see it him self. Simply printing the letter, after writing it on the computer, can do this.
This would make it more concrete, like discussed when it comes to general motivational
considerations. If he sends one to his parents, one can take advantage of technology
(email for example), which Carl might get a sense of what is and the uses of it. This will
then show him the before mentioned specific uses of the computer also. It will also
15

involve the family, which is important in Ghana as mentioned under the family topic.
Hooper and Umansky also stress the fact that the family is a very effective way of raising
a child with special needs (2004). “Family thoughts, feelings, ideas and observations […]
are critical to intervention (ibid:452)) they say. Their book is mostly for a United States
audience; nevertheless this should be especially true in Ghana, where family relations can
be more important then in western families.
To use and focus on his already existing computer skills, one could take benefit of
that he likes to use Microsoft Word (“Word”), a word processing program. He knows
how to use certain functions in it. He uses the function “WordArt” every time he is in
Word, so I assume he likes it. His computer teacher said he is very good with the
keyboard, so I started to observe this. He seemed to be able to find the letters on the
keyboard, but it takes about 10 seconds with every key.
I also found out that one person coming to the school, is not working there as I
thought, but is coming for Carl. When I found out this, I got the idea to ask how they are
related. The relative was the cousin of Carl’s mother. In Norway this would not be a close
relative, but in Ghana it will have a greater importance that they are related. This we have
seen under the other topics. But we have also seen that I still have to remember
individual differences. So next I tried to find out how close they where. It seems that they
like to go to church together. I assume that they have an OK relationship.
So the easiest thing, and requiring the least resources, would be for Carl to write
something in Word, with WordArt, which he knows very well. This could then be shown
to the relative. This will let the family-member see what Carl learns and is doing.
Possibly the family-member can then communicate this to the rest of the family. This in
turn can enable them to use any resources they have in the area of computers and other
related assistance.
This will also be in the spirit of Hooper and Umansky, who say that augmentative
communication devices (a device to facilitate communication) should be used as a
“means to an end […], to achieve something specific” (Hooper & Umansky 2004:208). If
this letter will provide Carl with a way to communicate, it could” promote learning,
socialization, and development […]
16

Access and software settings
In this chapter I will discuss access and software settings that can be made.
Carl sometimes tries to write some words on the computer. When I ask him to
write his name, he might get the first letter right, but the rest of the letters are wrong.
Therefore I have to help him spell it. One problem is that when he presses a key on the
keyboard, he holds it in for such a long time so that the computer makes two symbols or
more. Instead of “p” he gets “ppppppp”. Hooper and Umansky says that the computer
mostly has accessibility options (2004:208) . This is found by clicking “Control Panel”
and then “Accessibility Options” in Windows. You might have to go to “My Computer”
to find “Control Panel”. By using the “FilterKeys” option, one can slow down the repeat
rate, so it will be easy for Carl to avoid getting to many similar symbols, like letters,
when writing. The filter keys can also be used to allow the computer to ignore brief
keystrokes (IBID). This I have seen has been a problem for some at New Horizon that do
not have so good motor control of the arms, as they touch the wrong keys when pushing
other keys. Another function is “StickyKeys” which allow users to press one key at a
time when using combinations of keys (IBID), like Ctrl + C (to copy text).
Assessment
According to Hooper and Umansky it is very important that a child demonstrates that it
could perform a task: “[…] in a variety of actual situations” (Hooper & Umansky
2004:201). They describe some learning stages as: Acquisition,” […] the most basic
level”. Generalization,” […] the child’s ability to perform the skill […]” in different
situations. Adaptation, ”[…] child’s ability to modify the skill to fit environmental
demands […] “ (2004:163).
When setting up the computer to use for writing, it’s logical that it will be easier
for him if it is set up the same every time. This dictates that Carl should use the same
computer every time, and if something is chanced, it should be set back. For example if
the icon for word is moved (on the desktop), or if the menu bars in Word is moved or
changed. This should be checked before he is to do a task, like writing this letter.
This should enable Carl to reach Hooper and Umanskys acquisition level. When
evaluating software it is important to remember that children should move from
17

acquisition to adaptation level (IBID:200,201,163,164). In adaptation level:” […] the
learner applies the skill in new situations and applications” (IBID:201)) (Learner
indicating that this applies to all people who are learning). To achieve this, one could as
stated, change the application Carl is using or maybe change the computer he is using,
where positions of icons and menus are often different. This is the case in New Horizon,
but is also so when using computers outside New Horizon, enabling Carl to improve “day
to day functioning” (IBID:164)) in Hooper and Umanskys words.
If one changes the way Carl uses the computer or changes the computer, it is
important not to change too much, to fast. This will enable him to move through the
learning stages as described in the first section. If Carl gets problems when things get
changed, it will probably indicate that progression is to fast, and he should go back to the
level he managed it at. Daily variations in how much he can do and wants to do should be
accounted for, as with all people. Motivation might need to be emphasized (IBID:201)),
as described in the motivation chapter.
The changes described can also present a problem when it comes to
standardization. When using special learning programs, one might achieve that a pupil
can learn different skills, like spelling words and counting, like special programs does.
On New Horizon, they also have these programs, and the ability to customize the
computer, with FilterKeys and StickyKeys for example and removing icons on the
desktop to reduce confusion. Some children can be confused by software with “[…]
extraneous visual or auditory input […]” (IBID:202)) is important to remember.
The disadvantage with this is maybe that the ability to use computers in general,
like the standard computers at the many Internet cafes in Accra, will be difficult. Since
these computers are seldom customized and have special programs, the pupil will be
more handicapped. The pupil might not understand how to use it. This highlights the
necessity for a pupil to master computer skill at the adaptation level. It also highlights the
advantages and disadvantages of what Hooper and Umansky describes as dedicated and
nondedicated communication devices. Nondedicated has more flexibility (Lipner
(1997:99-118)) in Hooper & Umansky (2004:204)), while dedicated should be more easy
to use, because it is more task specific. This should be considered when setting up the
computer . Should for example Carl learn to use one, customized computer, or should he
18

be able to use the standard set up computer? This will have to be adjusted according to
what his goals are. As implied before, this applies to all learners, not just those with
intellectual disability.
General observations about Carl.
After considering the aspects of motivation and family, assessment and software, based
on theory and empirics (methods relying solely on observation and experiment), I now
had a good idea of what to observe especially about Carl. I had to assess Carl’s situation
holistically, to be able to integrate him more in the theory and empirics. This was also
necessary to see if he at all was using the computer for a goal and/or for something
constructive.
Therefore I carried out an observation of him when he was using Word. First I
observed how he used Word without instructions, without even telling him to open Word.
He eventually opened it, and I observed how he used it. I then tried to give him the
instruction to write his name. Then I asked him to write a two-sentence message, to his
relative at the school.
I did not have a specific goal for the observation of him using Word, because I
wanted to be open for all possibilities that could be important both for Carl and in the
light of the previously discussed topics. The observation is attached, see attachment 2.
Assessment
When doing the observation, I found it important to make it structured. I did this mostly
by following Hooper and Umanskys tips on assessment of technology for computer
access. They say that it is important to do an assessment with something you know the
pupil masters (Hooper & Umansky (2004:211). Carl already knew Word, so I found it a
good program to do evaluation with. As Hooper and Umansky say:
“[…] children can be presented with material that their teacher is confident that they know and see
how well they can access the computer to make their selection” (2004:211).
Like discussed under the topic of motivation, something known should be presented.
When I told Carl to open Word, he did not have a problem with it, so we can assume he
knows this program and has no problems accessing it, by clicking it with a mouse.
19

Another way to assess if he for example can use the keyboard is if you have a
Word he can write on paper, or at least spell. If he cannot write it on the computer, it
might be something with the keyboards keys being too small or difficult to see. One way
of making it easier for Carl is by coloring all the letters on the keyboard. There are 26
letter keys on the keyboard, but 78 other keys, so this might be confusing. I saw this
coloring on a picture from a computer lab for disabled.6
Hooper and Umansky say that:
“Certain keys may be color coded to aid learning” (2004:209) or high contrast labels may
be used, like white letters on black (2004:209). Coloring keys could be done on at least
one of the six computers on New Horizon, since this is a problem I have seen many
pupils could be in need of help with.
Another option is to use a larger keyboard, or with a different configuration
(Hooper and Umansky (2004:209). This will
certainly be more expensive then just coloring the
keys with a highly visible color, like a yellow marker.
Big keyboards, like IntelliKeys in the picture (Figure
2) can be used7
(Hooper and Umansky 2004:209).
Culture
Like mentioned, cultural differences can be less important than the individual ones.
Hansen says that: […] social situation, working condition, education age and economics
[…] “ (2005:5, my translation) can be some factors that are just as, or more, important
then culture and/or religion. At the very end of what started as an observation, the relative
said that Carl had a computer at home. Thus, his social situation was maybe a bit
different then discussed under the availability topic when it came to his access to
computers. Another point is that during my daily cooperation with Carl, I learned that
Carl has spent some time in America, and therefore does not use the local language as
much. Here again, we see the practical implications his social situation has. If I started
some intervention to for example have him use local language when writing a letter on
the computer, it might not be so interesting to him.
6
The picture that was taken in “The Vale” school, England, was hanging in New Horizon.
7
I have not checked the availability in Ghana
20
3

4.0 Summary
As I close this paper, I certainly have seen the importance of the family. Family seems to
be more important in Ghana then in Norway, and possibly also for intellectually disabled.
Family can mean a lot for a pupils learning, especially when using computers.
This has been a somewhat theoretical paper. I did not do so much interviews to
assess Carl’s situation. Even though I had to leave out some information about Carl to
protect his privacy, this could also have contributed to involving family members more.
By interviewing them, they could get more involved and possibly, as discussed, use their
resources. This should therefore be considered in future cooperation with Carl and his
family.
When it comes to motivation, one should focus on the positive, the well known
and the concrete, when teaching how to use computers. Not on the negative and unknown
sides, event though it is important for Carl to learn adaptable skills. Even though
computers are few in Ghana, individual variations exist. As with all descriptions and
generalizations about cultures, we see that individual differences are very important to
remember. Carl has a little problems writing much text, which can be helped by coloring
the keys, using FilterKeys and buying a custom keyboard. To use something known, let
him use WordArt, and change the computers he uses to introduce new elements, without
making him confused. Programs should also be adjusted in speed and difficulty.
22

References
• Befring, E (2004): Skolen for barns beste. Oppvekst og læring i eit pedagogisk
perspektiv. Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo.
• Befring, E. & Tangen, R. (editors) (2004): Spesialpedagogikk. Cappelen
Akademisk, Oslo.
• Dalland, O. (2007): Metode og oppgaveskriving for studenter. Gyldendal, Oslo.
• Davis, H. (1995) Rådgivning til foreldre med kronisk syke og funksjonshemmede
barn (Original title: Counselling parents of children with chronic illness
or disability). Norwegian translation by Gyldendal, Oslo.
• Eriksen, E.H. & Sørheim, S.A. (2003): Kulturforskjeller i praksis: Perspektiver
på det flerkulturelle Norge. Gyldendal, Oslo.
• Hansen (2005): Helsearbeid i et flerkulturelt samfunn. Gyldendal, Oslo.
• Hooper, S. R. & Umansky, W. (editors) (2004): Young children with special
needs. Pearson education, Upper Saddle River (New Jersey).
• International Telecommunications Union (FN) (2002): Yearbook.
• International Telecommunications Union (FN) (2007): [Report]
http://www.itu.int/itu-d/icteye/reports.aspx# (or tinyurl.com/ictstat)
[Accessed 10.September 2008].
• Johannessen, E. (2007): Mye er forskjellig – men bare utenpå? - Om barn,
barneoppdragelse og utdanning i en mangfoldig verden. SEBU Forlag,
Oslo.
• Kassha, A.K: (2006): What is this strategy called CBR? PUBLISHAMERICA,
LLLP, Baltimore.
• Kuada, J. & Chachah, Y. (1999): Ghana: Understanding the pople and their
culture. Woeli Publishing Services, Accra and Africa Books Collective,
Oxford.
• Lipner, ? (1997) [No reference].
• Lonely Planet: (Ham, A. and others (2006)): West Africa. Lonely Planet
Publications, Melbourne.
23

• Løkken, G. & Søbestad, F. (1999): Observasjon og intervju i barnehagen. Tano-
Aschehoug, Oslo.
• Nukunya, G.K. (2003): Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to
sociology. Ghana University Press, Accra.
• Nyhoni Computer School (200?): [No title]
http://wim.kak.be/work/NCS/Secretarialcursus/Chapter%2002.doc (or
tinyurl.com/manualncs) [ Accessed 22.November 08].
• Silverman, D. (1997): QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – Theory, Method and
Practice. SAGE Publications, London.
24

Keywords
Keyword Page
Climbing in levels 16
Customizing the computer 16
Including family 14
Individual vs. cultural 19
Learning levels 15
Means to and end 15
School and learning 12
Standardization 17
25

Attachment 1: Observation
October 23, 2008
I wish to write a paper with the title: How to make computers accessible for the
intellectually disabled and autists in Accra, Ghana?
When writing this paper, I am required to base the paper on one pupil/ student at
New Horizon, although I do not intend to write so much about a specific pupil. I do wish
to base the parts I am writing about on your xxxxxxxx.
The most important thing for me will be that no personal or other sensitive
information gets revealed in this paper. Therefore, the only information that will be
revealed about your grandchild is information relevant for the topic, meaning information
about his accessibility to computers. His name, xxxxxxxx xxxxx other things that can
easily identity him, will be changed. I will assure that the reader of the paper should not
be able to identify your xxxxxx, unless he knows who I am writing about.
Off course, I will have to record some things about what your xxxxxx does on
school, and possibly outside school. This record will be deleted when the paper is
finished, but meanwhile all records will be kept anonymous by leaving out names, etc.
like in this letter.
You will also be given the opportunity to read the paper, when you want (it is in
English).
I hope that I on these grounds may be allowed to write this paper, based in part on your
xxxxxx
Kind Regards
Xxxxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx
26

Attachment 2: Observation 17.November
Start: 10.38 am
Stop: 10.55 am
Computer teacher informed that I am observing the use of Word.
Pre disposition: Computer teacher: Can get his name right, but changes “ ” with “ ” in
his name. Might have problems with his vision, with looking down and then up. So
observe his vision.
My position: Together with and at the side of Carl, because he will be suspicious if I sit
far away: “Over exposition”. I wanted to sit a little longer away at first, but this proved
unnatural. Carl is at his so called regular computer.
My day form: Good. Ready to get done with the paper. Finished with Physical Education
(PE).
General: First so called free roaming, then asked him to write a short greeting. Extra pen
and watch at the ready.
“Observation” Interpretation
-Pushed the button on another computer when
he came in
-Uses word
-Wants to change computer
-10.46 am - Leaves the computer to check a
CD. Asked to wipe away where he has drooled.
-Writes 1063fm
-Got to Xxxxx (->his family member who is at
the school).
-Started writing a lot of symbols again. Asked
him to wipe it away
-Then I asked him to write how are you? He
insisted on using WordArt.
-Got him to write it letter by letter.
-He often said “where is [letter he was
searching for]”? Just showed him the letter, and
-Becomes unnatural if I do not say anything.
Therefore I had to give certain questions like what
are you doing?
-Observation going fine...
-What’s wrong with this computer
-Not so much he wants do without receiving
instructions
-Has done this many times before.
-It requires a lot of energy to give him the constant
instructions he needs to write words
-
Possibly because of confusion?
27

he soon pushed it without me having to show
him where it was
-wrote “how are you”? Asked him to fetch the
family member
-Family member: Has computer at home, men
only listens to songs.
-
Observation stopped. Found it natural to finish.
Found it impossible to observe his vision while
observing the other things.
Afterwards: Carl went with his family member to practice for the Christmas program
28

computers and disabled v er2

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