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1.  The things we would like to know:
 What does renaissance mean?
 What are causes of the renaissance?
 Why did the renaissance occur in Florence
first?
 How did the Middle Ages build up the
background for the renaissance?
 Who were the renaissance artists, sculptors,
scholars?
 What was the impact of the renaissance?

2.  Renaissance is a French word meaning ‘rebirth.
 Generally described as taking place from 1300 to
1600, the Renaissance is the period when the
rediscovery of classical Greco-Roman philosophy,
literature and art took place in Europe.
 Some of the greatest thinkers, authors,
statesmen, scientists and artists in human
history thrived during this era, while global
exploration opened up new lands and cultures to
European commerce.
 The Renaissance was the most important event
in European history that pulled Europe out of the
backwardness of the Middle Ages in Europe and
eventually led to the major events of the Age of
Enlightenment that ushered in the modern age.

3.  The Middle Ages is the period between the fall of
ancient Rome in 476 AD and the beginning of the 14th
century, when Europeans did not make much
advances in science and art.
 It is also known as the Dark Ages, when war,
ignorance, famine and pandemics such as the Black
Death (the Bubonic Plague that swept through
Europe, Africa and Asia from 1346 to 1353, causing
the death of almost 200 million people, the most
fatal pandemic till date) plagued Europe.
 Some historians, however, believe that such grim
depictions of the Middle Ages were greatly
exaggerated which ignores the advances made in
culture and philosophy during the Carolingian
renaissance of the 9th and 10th centuries and the rise
of universities in the 11th and 12th centuries.

4.  During the 14th century, a cultural movement called
humanism began to gain momentum in Italy.
 Among its many principles, humanism promoted the
idea that man was the center of his own universe,
and people should embrace human achievements in
education, classical arts, literature and science.
 In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press
allowed for improved communication throughout
Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly.
 As a result of this advance in communication, little-
known texts from early humanist authors such as
those by Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio,
which promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and
Roman culture and values, were printed and
distributed to the masses.

5.  As a center for the European wool trade, the
political power of the city rested primarily in the
hands of the wealthy merchants who dominated
the industry.
 These merchants built enormous gilded mansions
in the city, villas in the country, and contributed
to the construction of grand cathedrals,
spawning the physical rebirth of the city.
 A spirit of competition developed between the
rich merchants, who often competed with each
other to see who could commission the grandest
buildings and the finest works of art.
 Competition augmented the fervor with which
the city entered into the Renaissance.

6.  A flourishing economy and wealthy patrons are
essential for art and culture to thrive.
 In Florence, Italy, the Medici family (founded by
Giovanni de Medici in 1397) who ruled for 60
years, were the greatest patrons of art,
sculpture, architecture and literature.
 The cultural movement that began in Florence
spread to other Italian city-states, such as
Venice, Milan, Bologna, Ferrara and Rome.
 Renaissance ideas spread from Italy to France
and then throughout western and northern
Europe in the 15th century.

7.  Extensive scholarly activity recovered vital
ancient works from the Greco-Roman
civilizations.
 Its city-states allowed art and new ideas to
flourish.
 Vast trading links encouraged cultural and
material exchange.
 When Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in
1453, scholars fled to Italy with a huge amount
of scriptures that led to the rediscovery of
ancient Roman and Greek classics.
 The Vatican was a rich and powerful patron.

8.  Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): Italian
painter, architect, inventor and “Renaissance
man” responsible for painting “The Mona
Lisa” and “The Last Supper.
 Giotto (1266-1337): Italian painter and
architect whose more realistic depictions of
human emotions influenced generations of
artists. Best known for his frescoes in the
Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.
 Michelangelo (1475–1564): Italian sculptor,
painter and architect who carved “David”
and painted The Sistine Chapel in Rome.

9.  Titian(1488–1576): Italian painter celebrated for
his portraits of Pope Paul III and Charles I and his
later religious and mythical paintings like “Venus
and Adonis” and "Metamorphoses."
 Donatello(1386–1466): Italian sculptor celebrated
for lifelike sculptures like “David,”
commissioned by the Medici family.
 Sandro Botticelli(1445–1510): Italian painter of
“Birth of Venus.”
 Raphael(1483–1520): Italian painter who learned
from da Vinci and Michelangelo. Best known for
his paintings of the Madonna and “The School of
Athens.”

10.  Dante(1265–1321): Italian philosopher, poet, writer
and political thinker who authored “The Divine
Comedy.”
 Niccolo Machiavelli(1469–1527): Italian diplomat and
philosopher famous for writing “The Prince” and “The
Discourses on Livy.”
 Galileo (1564-1642): Italian astronomer, physicist and
engineer whose pioneering work with telescopes
enabled him to describes the moons of Jupiter and
rings of Saturn. Placed under house arrest for his
views of a heliocentric universe.
 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543): Mathematician and
astronomer who made first modern scientific
argument for the concept of a heliocentric solar
system.

11.  Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi studied
mathematics to accurately engineer and design
immense buildings with expansive domes.
 Scientific discoveries led to major shifts in
thinking: Galileo and Descartes presented a new
view of astrology and mathematics, while
Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not the Earth,
was the center of the solar system.
 Renaissance art was characterized by realism
and naturalism.
 Artists strived to depict people and objects in a
true-to-life way.

12.  Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): author of “Leviathan.”
 Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400): author of “The
Canterbury Tales.”
 William Tyndale (1494–1536): biblical translator,
humanist and scholar burned at the stake for
translating the Bible into English.
 William Byrd (1539/40–1623): composer known for his
development of the English madrigal and his religious
organ music.
 John Milton(1608–1674): poet and historian who
wrote the epic poem “Paradise Lost.”
 William Shakespeare(1564–1616): England’s “national
poet” and the most famous playwright of all time,
celebrated for his sonnets and plays.

13.  Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536): Scholar from
Holland who defined the humanist movement
in Northern Europe. Translator of the New
Testament into Greek.
 Rene Descartes (1596–1650): French
philosopher and mathematician regarded as
the father of modern philosophy. Famous for
stating, “I think; therefore I am.”

14.  The most significant changes that emerged
as a result of the Renaissance can be seen in
European architecture, art, literature,
mathematics, music, philosophy, politics,
religion and science.
 Historians have identified several causes for
the emergence of the Renaissance following
the Middle Ages, such as: increased
interaction between different cultures, the
rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman
texts, the emergence of humanism, different
artistic and technological innovations, and
the impacts of conflict and death.

15.  The Silk Road was an ancient trade route across
much of Asia and Europe and was an important
aspect of many different historical periods and
events, including: the Middle Ages,
the Renaissance and the Black Death.
 It is perhaps one of the earliest and largest
trade networks in human history, and played a
vital role to many different civilizations
throughout Eurasia from approximately 120 BCE
to 1450 CE.
 Named by historians for its trade of goods
including silk, the Silk Road actually emerged out
of earlier trade networks that date back to the
time of the Roman Empire.

16.  It is perhaps one of the earliest and largest trade networks
in human history, and played a vital role to many different
civilizations throughout Eurasia.
 At its height, the Silk Road stretched from Japan and China
in the east to the Mediterranean area including Italy in the
west, which was a span of over 4000 miles.
 Along the way it travelled through many different regions
including: India, Persia, the Middle East, Africa and Eastern
Europe.
 European traders often travelled to areas in the Middle
East to secure rare and desirable products, from the far
East.
 The Silk Road was involved the exchange of ideas. The
Middle Eastern civilizations were major centers of learning
and knowledge during this timeframe.

17.  In a siege dating from November, 636 to
April, 637, Palestine, fell to the Muslims.
 Western European nations began the wars to
recover Jerusalem from Muslims and named
it the Crusades (1096-1291).
 In 200 years, there were eight major
crusades and dozens of minor crusades.
 Beyond the obvious conflict regarding
religion, the interaction between different
groups of people led to a spread of scientific
and philosophical knowledge.

18.  The Middle East was a major center of learning and
knowledge.
 Due to its geographical location, the major Middle Eastern
civilizations were at the crossroads of the Silk Road and
therefore benefited greatly from having access to both
European and Asian knowledge.
 As such, when European crusaders came into contact with
Middle Eastern peoples they were exposed to new ideas
and inventions which eventually made their way back into
European society.
 Europeans learned new understandings about mathematics
from Middle Eastern mathematicians who were by far the
most advanced at that time.
 Also related to knowledge, the different societies involved
in the crusades were exposed to each other’s culture. This
meant that each side learned new understandings about
food, cultural practices and celebrations.

19.  The next main cause of the Renaissance was the rediscovery by
European thinkers of ancient Greek and Roman ideas and texts.
 Many of these ancient texts were preserved by Islamic and Jewish
cultures in the Middle East and were not rediscovered by
Europeans until the time of the Renaissance.
 Italian Renaissance scholar and humanist Petrarch is remembered
for rediscovering the earlier work of Roman philosopher Cicero.
 Cicero was born in Italy in 106 BC and died in 43 BC. He is
regarded as one of the most masterful writers of his time and the
Latin language. Petrarch’s rediscovery in the 14th century of
Cicero’s letters is considered to be the spark of the Italian
Renaissance and inspired other European scholars to do the same
and look to ancient texts.
 Petrarch considered the ideas present in Cicero’s and other
ancient texts as superior to the ideas present in Europe at the
time of the Middle Ages.
 Petrarch is considered to be the founder of the humanist
movement during the Renaissance.

20.  Petrarch use ancient texts to promote a
worldview based on logic and reason.
 This was to be accomplished through the study
of humanities and includes topics such
as: grammar, history, poetry, and philosophy.
 Renaissance humanists such as Petrarch
and Erasmus of Rotterdam promoted the idea
that citizens should be educated in these topics
in order to allow them to participate in the
social and political life of their society.
 This was a fundamental shift from the feudalistic
and religious life that was the reality for most
people in the Europe in the Middle Ages.

21.  The printing press was one of the most
significant innovations in all of world history.
 German blacksmith, goldsmith and
printer Johannes Gutenberg developed the first
printing press in the mid-1400s and it quickly had
a profound impact on the events of the
Renaissance as well as later events such as the
Enlightenment.
 Gutenberg’s invention was the development of a
hand mold that allowed for precise movable
type.
 The invention and use of the printing press in
Europe was important for the Renaissance
because it allowed new ideas and worldviews to
spread across the continent more easily.

22.  Another important point about the printing press was that it
challenged long held literacy and educational standards.
 With the mass production of books and other literature, more
poor and middle class people in Europe began to read.
 This allowed normal people to read and understand the new
ideas from the scholars, writers and scientists of the
Renaissance.
 Increased literacy challenged the power of the wealthy, nobility
and the church, since they were the traditionally the only
educated citizens.
 Since more and more people could read, they no longer had to
depend on local priests and the Catholic Church for
interpretation of the Bible.
 In fact, many people began to read and interpret the Bible for
themselves.
 This ultimately led to the Protestant Reformation and
fundamentally altered religious life for people in Europe.

23.  Previous to the Renaissance, in the Middle Ages,
art was focused on religious themes.
 During the Renaissance, European artists were
inspired to create paintings and sculptures that
focused more on the realities of everyday life
and real people.
 This was likely due to the influence of humanism
that helped spark the Renaissance.
 Also, just as scholars such as Petrarch were
inspired by earlier Greek and Roman workers, so
too were Renaissance artists. This meant
realism and the human form were important and
central to the new styles of art.

24.  The final cause of the Renaissance was the impact of
the Black Death.
 The Black Death is one of the most important events
in Western history and is the most disastrous
pandemic in all of human history.
 The Black Death ravaged human populations
throughout Asia and Europe as it spread along trade
routes and through trading ports.
 The death toll of the Black Death is a debated topic
and different historians have offered different views
on the issue. Regardless, the reported death tolls are
massive with some suggesting that it resulted in the
deaths of between 75 million and 200 million people
in Europe and Asia.
 Approximately half of Europeans died as a result of
the disease.

25.  The Black Death caused people to question and
challenge their own religious beliefs.
 The large death rate of the Black Death caused
massive changes in the population and wealth of
Europe.
 Many people migrated out of certain areas when
the plague spread and as a result, all of Europe
was thrown into an upheaval.
 This ultimately shifted the balance of power and
wealth in European societies and helped bring
about the dominance of several city-states in
Italy, which is where the Renaissance first
began.
 As a result, the Black Death and its impacts can
be viewed as a cause of the overall Renaissance.

26.  Renaissance artists such as Leonardo da
Vinci and Michelangelo pioneered new skills and techniques, such
as linear perspective, that allowed them to portray people and
the world in news ways.
 Linear perspective was the technique of providing realistic depth
to an image.
 It involved creating the illusion of depth by using angled lines
and shadowing.
 Another technique from the Renaissance was sfumato. This was
a painting technique whereby the painter would soften the lines
and blend the different paints to create blurred areas.
 This is likely best displayed in da Vinci’s famous ‘Mona Lisa’.
 Throughout history the painting has been praised for its use of
shading and blending to enhance the realistic nature of the art.
 In addition, Michelangelo’s famous sculpture ‘David’ displayed
the human form in a realistic and proportional nature.
 These innovations in art helped spread the Renaissance ideas as
more artists across Europe adopted the new techniques and
methods.

29.  learned how to read, write and interpret ideas, they
began to closely examine and critique religion as they
knew it. Also, the printing press allowed for texts,
including the Bible, to be easily reproduced and
widely read by the people, themselves, for the first
time.
 In 1517, Martin Luther, a German monk, led
the Protestant Reformation– a revolutionary
movement that caused a split in the Catholic church.
 Luther identified 95 problems of the Catholic church
that needed reform.
 Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role
of the Roman Catholic church during the Renaissance.

30.  As a result, a new form of Christianity, known as
Protestantism, was created.
 Scholars believe the demise of the Renaissance
was the result of several compounding factors.
 By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars
had plagued the Italian peninsula. Spanish,
French and German invaders battling for Italian
territories caused disruption and instability in
the region.
 Also, changing trade routes led to a period of
economic decline and limited the amount of
money that wealthy contributors could spend on
the arts.
 Thinkers feared being too bold, which stifled
creativity.

31.  Furthermore, in 1545, the Council of Trent
established the Roman which made humanism
and any views that challenged the Catholic
church an act of heresy punishable by death.
 By the early 17th century, the Renaissance
movement had died out, giving way to the Age
of Enlightenment.
 While many scholars view the Renaissance as a
unique and exciting time in European history,
others argue that the period wasn’t much
different from the Middle Ages and that both
eras overlapped more than traditional accounts
suggest.

32.  Some modern historians believe that the
Middle Ages had a cultural identity that’s
been downplayed throughout history and
overshadowed by the Renaissance era.
 While the exact timing and overall impact of
the Renaissance is sometimes debated,
there’s little dispute that the events of the
period ultimately led to advances that
changed the way people understood and
interpreted the world around them.

33.  Europeans took to the seas to learn more about the
world around them. In a period known as the Age of
Discovery, several important explorations were made.
 Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire
globe. They discovered new shipping routes to the
Americas, India and the Far East and explorers
trekked across areas that weren’t fully mapped.
 Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand
Magellan, Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci
(after whom America is named), Marco Polo Ponce de
Leon Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Hernando De Soto and
other explorers.
 The discovery of the American continent changed the
course of European history and the history of the
world forever.

34.  Portugal, Spain and England sponsored the discovery
of new lands and laid claim on them as their own.
 This unprecedented expansion of former territories
brought about the Commercial Revolution.
 The Commercial Revolution means basing the
economy on trade, which began in the 11th century
and lasted until it was succeeded by the Industrial
Revolution in the mid-18th century.
 Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans
rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities
rare in Europe.
 This development created a new desire for trade,
and trade expanded in the second half of the Middle
Ages (roughly 1000 to 1500 AD).

35.  Through voyages of discovery, Portugal, Spain
and Britain were looking for alternative trade
routes in the 15th and 16th centuries, which
allowed them build vast, new international
trade networks.
 Christian Missionaries followed the traders
everywhere , thereby spreading Christianity to
the far ends of the globe.
 The Commercial Revolution is marked by an
increase in general commerce, and in the growth
of financial services such as banking, insurance
and investing.
 Mercantilism and colonialism are two direct
results of the commercial revolution.

36. Questions:
A. What are the determinants of industrialization?
B. What are the phases leading to industrialization?
C. Why was England the first country to industrialize?

37. The term ‘revolution’ was usually
reserved to describe political
upheaval.
However, in 1837, the French
economist Jerome-Adolphe Blanqui,
while writing about the economic
development of England, wrote that
England had gone through a
‘revolution’ and that revolution was
an ‘industrial revolution’, not the
political revolutions that France was
familiar with.

38.  In 1844, Frederich Engels published an essay
titled ‘Condition of the Working Class in
England.’
 In that essay, Engels echoed Blanqui’s
statement that England had indeed gone
through an industrial revolution.
 The celebrated English historian Arnold
Toynbee made the term ‘Industrial
Revolution’ most popular through his public
lectures since 1884.

39.  Economists generally agree that there are six
factors whose presence led to determine
that England had gone through an industrial
revolution. The six factors are:
(A) Industrial products replaced agricultural
products as the source of national wealth.
(B) The majority of the population left the
villages and began living in the towns that
grew around coal mines and factories.

40. (C) Production moved from the home in the
villages to large factories in towns and cities.
(D) Engines will replace humans and animals as the
source of power and energy.
(E) Excess production could be achieved which
resulted in huge rise in export.
(F) Finally, unprecedented social changes,
economic changes and political developments
changed the face of England, never to return to
the previous state.

41.  Historians generally determine that the 7
decades between 1760 and 1830 is the period
of the first industrial revolution.
 In 1956, American economist Walt Whitman
Rostow wrote a book titled The Stages of
Industrial Growth.
 Rostow’s economic growth model is one of
the major historical models of economic
growth.

42.  Walt Rostow took a historical approach to his
economic model that attempts to explain
what phases countries have gone threw to
achieve economic growth.
 Stage 1: Traditional Society.
 Traditionally society indicates an agricultural
economy of mainly subsistence farming.
Farmers consume what they produce. No
sizable surplus is produced, hence no
mentionable trading is present.

43. Pre-conditions for Take-off.
Agriculture has to become
more mechanized.
Mechanized agriculture
produces surplus.
That surplus is traded.
This results in growth of
income and savings.

44.  Take-off.
The take-off stage is where manufacturing
assumes greater importance. Number of
industries, however, remains small. Political
and social institutions start to develop.
Although manufacturing gains importance,
majority population is still engaged in
agriculture.

45.  Drive to Maturity.
In this stage, industry becomes more diverse
and the state of technology improves.
Growth spreads to different parts of the
country and economy moves from depending
on natural factors (agriculture) to making use
of scientific innovation.
Per capita income increases at this stage.

46.  The fifth and final stage is the age of mass
consumption.
Industrial output enables massive increase
in consumer expenditure.
Economic growth is based on the tertiary
sector instead of the agricultural sector.
Growth is sustained by the expansion of a
middle class of consumers.

47.  England was the first country to industrialize
because, by the 2nd half of the 18th century,
all the pre-conditions for industrialization
were present.
 England had the world’s highest stock of coal
and iron ore, the two most important raw
materials for industrial production.
 The Agricultural Revolution of the 17th
century in England resulted in a rise of
population.

48.  The increased population supplied the
surplus labour required for the factories.
 Increased population was also a market for
the produced products.
 By the end of the 18th century, England was
engaged in a huge amount of overseas trade.
 England had overseas colonies which were at
the same time sources of raw material and
market for industrial produce.

49.  In England, the canal and road network was
extensive. This pre-existing infrastructure
provided impetus for internal trade.
 There were tertiary level financial
institutions in England. The Bank of England
was established in 1694. There were joint-
stock companies from the 1600s.
 These financial institutions provided capital
for business. The Bank of England provided
paper money and credit notes which
increased investment.

50.  Most importantly, in England, by the 1760s,
scientific inventions were made which could
be used in industry.
 The surplus capital from overseas trade was
invested in industry.
 There was political stability in England
provided by the parliamentary system of
government.

51.  The laissez-faire policy of government
provided boost for trade.
 Laissez-faire means free-market capitalism.
 The term 'laissez-faire' translates to 'leave
alone.'
 The theory suggests that an economy is
strongest when the government stays out of
the economy entirely, letting market forces
behave naturally.
 The Industrial Revolution occurred in England
entirely without intervention from
Government.

52. A. Inventions in the textile industry
B. Iron production
C. Invention of the steam engine
D. The Factory System
E. Invention of the rail engine
F. Capitalist investment

53.  There were certain scientific inventions that
occurred in England in the 18th century that
propelled the textile sector into
unprecedented heights of production.
 Coupled with large private investments and
aided by a developed distribution system,
the textile industry became the take-off
point for the Industrial Revolution.
 Total non-intervention of the government
resulted in extremely rapid growth of
industry.

54.  In 1733 John Kay, who was a clock maker by
profession, invented the flying shuttle which
doubled the amount of cloth a weaver could
weave in a day.
 The flying shuttled allowed the weaver to work
without an assistant who was previously needed
to take the shuttle from one end of the loom to
another.
 It was the first invention that put the textile
industry at the center of the Industrial
Revolution.
 Kay’s invention created the heightened demand
for yarn.

56.  When the flying shuttle began to be used by
the weavers and their cloth production
doubled, it created a serious demand for
more yarn.
 James Hargreaves, in 1764, came up with the
idea of how to increase yarn production
eight-fold.
 The spinning jenny was a wheel that turned
16 spindles at a time, whereas previously 1
spindle was turned at a time by one person.

58.  Up to this point, weavers could use the
innovations and produce from home.
Although production had increased manifold,
the textile industry could still be called a
cottage industry.
 The invention of Richard Arkwright’s water-
powered spinning machine in 1769 required
the machine to be housed in a huge place,
and it required to be placed by rivers or
canals for power.

60.  Human power was replaced by water power
for the first time in the textile industry with
the invention of Richard Arkwright’s
machine.
 He powered up a spinning machine with a
water wheel.
 It could spin non-stop and Richard Arkwright
kept it spinning 24 hours a day, using women
and children for cheap labour.
 He kept them on 12-hour shifts.

61.  Richard Arkwright built his first spinning factory
in 1771 along the river Derwent in Derbyshire.
 Derby is considered to be the birthplace of the
Industrial Revolution.
 The Rolls Royce factory is also there.
 From 1771 onwards, textile production increased
100-fold.
 Arkwright became a billionaire using John Kay’s
idea.
 John Kay did not get rich because he hadn’t
applied for the patent. Richard Arkwright did.

66.  In 1774, an inventor called Samuel Crompton
combined the spinning and weaving process
in one machine.
 This was a revolutionary concept for the
time.
 Richard Arkwright took up the idea and
installed these machines in his factory.
 Between 1800 and 1850, cotton became the
major export item of Britain.
 Children as young as 6 years old worked 12-
hour shifts in the new factories being built
across the country.

67.  In 1785 Edmund Cartwright invented the
power loom.
 It was powered by steam and thus replaced
the flying shuttle.
 The power loom was a game changer because
it produced the much needed yarn that the
weaving machines demanded.
 Finally, with the invention of the power
loom, the demand for yarn was met with
supply.

68.  The first power loom was installed in a
factory in Manchester.
 Thus Manchester became the country’s, and
later, the world’s weaving capital.
 Manchester is recognized as the world’s first
industrial city.
 Its towering mills, its bustling warehouses,
its crowded streets changed the way peopled
worked and lived.
 A new way of thinking emerged from these
changes.

69.  The British government took ‘infant industry
protectionism’ policy to save her industry from
competition.
 Bengal cotton was the world’s most sought after
cotton till the 18th century.
 Between 1797 and 1819, the British government
placed taxes on the import of Bengal cotton which
rose from 30% to 50% to 100%, and then to 1000%.
 Thus, by the 1830s, Bengal’s cotton industry was
ruined by England.
 Bengal could not slap any tax on British goods as
retaliation because she was a colony.
 The destruction of the textile industry was the first
step towards the de-industrialization of India by
Britain.

70.  The first commercially successful engine that
could transmit continuous power to a
machine was developed in 1712 by Thomas
Newcomen.
 James Watt made the critical improvement
of removing spent steam to a separate vessel
for condensation.
 This allowed stationary steam engines to
power the factories of the Industrial
Revolution.

71.  Until the early 20th century, reciprocating
piston type steam engines were the dominant
source of power.
 The invention of electric power ushered the
world into the second industrial revolution.
 In 1825, the first railroad opened in Britain
between Stockton and Darlington.
 It used a steam locomotive built by George
Stephenson.

72.  In 1830, the first modern railroad opened
between Manchester and Liverpool.
 The previous locomotive only carried minerals.
 The Manchester-Liverpool railway for the first
time carried both passengers and freight.
 By 1870 Britain had 21,700 kilometers of
railroad.
 By 1914, 120 private companies ran 32,000 km of
track.
 The railroad played an immense role in creating
a new world order.

73. A. Working conditions
B. Living conditions
C. Rapid urbanization
D. Public health issues
E. Exploitation of women and children
F. Emergence of the middle class

74.  The Industrial Revolution in England was
achieved entirely through private enterprise.
 Hence, there was no law to ensure that
workers were not exploited.
 There was no law for labor safety.
 There were no regulations to limit the extent
of exploitation of the millions of workers.
 The 18th century was an age of unbridled
capitalism.

75.  A vast array of literature exists regarding the
impact of the Industrial Revolution on the
socio-economic condition of England.
 However, the most authentic sources are the
British Parliamentary papers.
 The Report of the Michael Sadler’s
Committee, submitted to Parliament in 1832
is by far the most authentic and most
detailed.
 Frederick Engels’ 1844 book titled The
Conditions of the Working Class in England is
another good primary source.

76.  During the Industrial Revolution and after,
people from the villages thronged to the new
industrial cities in search of work. They
consisted of 80% of the working population.
 A report of 1823 states that 1,500,000 were
fully employed, 1,500,000 found part-time
work and 1,500,000 remained fully
unemployed.
 As a result, workers had no bargaining power
over their employers as the supply was
greater than the demand.

77.  The workers were mostly unskilled.
 They were not organized.
 Thus, they had no bargaining power to
demand decent wages or fair work hours or
good working conditions.
 The political system denied voting powers to
the middle and working classes.
 The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 made
it illegal for workers to form labor unions.

78.  Because of the wholesale destruction of the
cottage industry, skilled, talented and
experienced weavers lost every means of
livelihood and were reduced to utter poverty.
 Independent weavers, who earned 20 to 30
shillings per week, were reduced to earning 4
or 5 shillings a week, or even less.
 Others were reduced to starvation. This is
exactly what happened to the Bengal
weavers.

79.  For the first 100 years of the Industrial
Revolution, working conditions were truly
harsh.
 Working hours stretched from 10 to 14 hours
a day, 6 days a week, with no paid vacation.
 There was no insurance for accidents, even
in the most dangerous factories like the iron
industry, or, mining industry.

80.  No compensation was offered for accidents and
injuries. Wages were stopped for those who
incurred injuries on the job and no medical
assistance was provided.
 From the slow, leisurely, flexible pace of country
life, the stressful, demanding and stifling
conditions of the factories were debilitating for
the mind and the body.
 Workers could not talk or chat during work in the
factories, as they would have done on the fields.
 No leave was granted to go back home during
harvest time.

81.  Life in the city was an utterly different
experience from life in the countryside.
 In the countryside, skilled workers enjoyed
quality of life. They had their own homes
with gardens. Weavers had their own shops.
All members of the family joined in at their
own pace. They grew their own vegetables
and flowers in their gardens. They had a
social life with games and picnics.

82.  The living conditions in the city were
abysmal.
 The city slums where the workers were
forced to live in were filled with filth and
misery.
 There was absolutely no scope for even a
little recreation.
 Workers never saw the light of day as they
worked for 10 to 14 hours.
 Government set up poorhouses where
destitutes could come and stay, but they had
to be separated from children and spouse.

83.  A lasting feature of the Industrial Revolution
was the rapid rise of cities.
 In pre-industrial England, over 80% of the
population lived in villages.
 In 1850, for the first time in world history,
the urban population exceeded the rural
population.
 Europe urbanized in the 19th century and, by
1920, the majority of American people lived
in urban areas.

84.  Manchester, a small mining town, rapidly grew to
become the industrial capital of England. It’s
population exploded from 22,000 in 1771 to
180,000 in fifty years.
 The port town of Liverpool, the mining town of
Lancashire, the quiet town of Derby – all rapidly
grew into crowded cities with the establishment
of factories.
 However, although the process of
industrialization and the new industrial cities
became a source of wealth for the nation, for
the people who lived there in the city slums, life
was unbearable.

85.  In 1835, the French traveler Alexis de
Tocqueville visited Manchester.
 Tocqueville painted the most vivid picture
which Eric Hobsbawm quotes in his book The
Age of Revolution: “From this foul Drain the
greatest stream of human industry flows out
to fertilize the whole world. From this filthy
sewer pure gold flows. Here humanity attains
its most complete development and its most
brutish, here civilization works its miracles
and civilized man is turned almost into a
savage.”

86.  Urban crowding, poor diet, poor sanitation
and lack of medical remedies created
nightmare conditions from the viewpoint of
public health.
 Crowded city slums contributed to the fast
spread of disease.
 Homes lacked toilets and there were no
sewage systems, hence drinking water was
polluted.

87.  Cholera, tuberculosis, typhus, typhoid and
influenza ravaged through rapidly growing
industrial towns.
 In 1849, 10,000 people died of cholera in 3
months in London alone.
 In the 19th century, in every decade, 60,000
to 70,000 people died of tuberculosis.
 Medieval remedies such as bloodletting and
leeching, use vomiting tactics and use of
laxatives induced severe dehydration in
patients.

88.  Child mortality was alarmingly high.
 Life expectancy was extremely low.
 Poor nutrition, disease, lack of sanitation and
harmful medical care was responsible for low
rate of life expectancy.
 In 1841, average life expectancy in rural
areas was 45, while it was 37 in London and
26 in Liverpool!
 25-33% children died before reaching the age
of 5.

89.  Capitalists wanted to maximize their profits
by exploiting cheap labor.
 Women and children provided the factory
owners with the cheap, unskilled labor they
were looking for.
 They were paid 1/10th of what men were
paid.
 Child labor was the cheapest labor of all.
 Children started factory work from the age
of 6 or even 5.

90.  Women were another source of cheap labor.
They even did not get leave for child birth.
There are numerous incidents where women
gave birth in coal mines or factory floors.
 In 1789, in Richard Arkwright’s new spinning
factory, of 1,150 workers, 767 were children
and they worked 12-hour shifts.
 The children were poorly fed, sickly, small
and barefoot.

91.  In the 1830s, Michael Sadler, a member of
the British Parliament, began investigating
the ghastly condition of the mines and
factories.
 After he published his reports, Parliament
passed a bill to decrease child labor to 10
hours a day.

92.  In the pre-industrial world, there were two
classes: the aristocrats and low income
commoners.
 The aristocrats were born into privilege and
wealth.
 The Industrial Revolution destroyed the old
class system.
 Just as the new industrial working class was
born, so was the middle class.

93.  The new industries created jobs for educated
people.
 The industries needed accountants,
supervisors, bank clerks, insurance agents,
merchants, managers, doctors, teachers,
lawyers, and other business people.
 The middle class received monthly salaries.
They rented decent homes in the cities and
they employed cooks and governesses.

94.  The rise of the middle class meant that birth
was not the deciding factor for what one did
in the world.
 It meant that with an education, a person
could rise in society.
 Social mobility increased with the increase in
the educated population.
 By the second half of the 19th century,
separate schools and colleges for women
began to emerge.

95.  The rise of the educated middle class with
white collar jobs changed the political
scenario also.
 The middle class wanted to share political
power.
 Thus movements to reform and expand the
electorate began from the early 19th century
and continued throughout the 20th century.
 The First Reform Act of 1832 was the
ultimate result of the rising power of the
numerically stronger middle and working
class.

96.  The Industrial Revolution that began in
England quickly spread throughout Europe
and America.
 The world was never the same again.
Industrial societies left the non-industrial
societies far behind.
 Science and technology made great strides in
the industrialized societies. The world
became clearly divided into first world and
third world countries.

97.  The first 100 years of Britain’s development
represents the first industrial revolution.
 The period from 1850s to 1950s represents
the second industrial revolution.
 The third industrial revolution begins from
the 1960s, when technology began to take
over the life of the masses.
 The present age has been dubbed the age of
the 4th industrial revolution as technological
innovation reaches new heights.