1. 4/28/2016 An examination
of Hearing
Impairment as it
relates to
Communication
Comm 160 Dr. Quinwen Dong
Tyler Livy
UNIVERSITY OF THE PACIFIC SPRING 2015

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Abstract
Objective: the purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between ear
protection usage and attendance at concerts as it relates to the major chosen by college students.
Method: 210 students in general education classes conducted a self-reported survey at the
University of the Pacific in Stockton, California, and represented most of the student body. The
questions were created by the author, and the survey itself used the Likert scale. Results: The
descriptive analysis illustrated that the question could not be answered, because of the way the
survey was written. As such, correlation analysis was used to determine relationships between
individual questions. It did demonstrate a statistically significant relationship between concert
attendance, inability to hear in class, and listening to music daily. Discussion: The research
question could not be answered, but the above correlation, as well as a resulting correlation
between ear protection and cultural shock, should be further investigated. Limitations and
suggestions were also discussed.
Keywords: Ear protection, Concerts, Hearing Loss, Communications, Music

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Introduction
This paper seeks to explore a subject that has not been as thoroughly examined within the
communications discipline. Hearing loss, by its very nature to impair ability to process sound,
disrupts the transactional model of communication by radically increasing the amount of noise
present in any communication situation, making the process of decoding and deciphering far
more difficult. While it is true that there are nonverbal codes of communication, these codes are
very difficult to interpret without the proper verbal context, or unless someone is learned in a
nonverbal language, such as American Sign Language (ASL.) Finally, the Western world heavily
relies upon verbal communication, to the point that being hearing impaired can negatively affect
the well-being of the individual. As such, I believe it is time communication scholars turn their
attention toward hearing impairment.
This study is exploratory in nature, seeking data and ideas that more qualified researchers
can better investigate than a money and time constrained college student. My research question
is as follows: Is there a relationship between number of concerts attended (as well as subsequent
usage of ear protection) and the student’s major at the University of the Pacific? My key terms
that need to be defined for this research question are concerts, major, and ear protection. A
concert is an event that is held a scheduled time throughout the year, during which time several
bands gather at an appropriate institution, such as a stadium or a music hall. Said bands play
multiple songs throughout the night. The sound of each sound is multiplied through speakers and
amplifiers, and usually results in temporary hearing loss. A major is a specialization taken upon
by higher-level education students, and becomes the primary focus of the remainder of their

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academic career; students can change their major throughout their time in college, or can remain
undecided up to a certain point in time. Ear protection is any attempt made to reduce the ear’s
ability to take in acoustic sound waves. This can be achieved through a variety of devices, such
as earplugs, earmuffs, and other external sound blockers or reducers.
Literature Review
In this first paper by Wadman, Durkin & Conti-Ramsden (2009) the main purpose of this
study is to examine a possible relationship between global self-esteem, shyness, and low
sociability as it relates to Specific Language Impairment. In this particular instance, Specific
Language Impairment is the Independent variable; it exists in the individual under study and
causes impairment in terms of language. The three dependent variables are self-esteem, shyness,
and sociability. They are what the researchers theorize will change based on existence of a
Specific Language Impairment.
The researchers selected 54 young adults with and without Specific Language disorder,
making a total sample size of 98. The individuals were selected from The Manchester Language
Study conducted in 1999 by Conti-Ramsden and Botting. The researchers used a combination of
qualitative and quantitative research methods for their experiments. They conducted a series of
interviews and tests, including the IQ test, with each individual in a quiet area.
Three tests in particular were highlighted in this study. The first, the Rosenburg Self-
Esteem Scale, asks a series of five negative and positive statements. The individuals under study
rated on a four-point scale the amount they agreed or disagreed with the statement. The second
test illuminated was the Twelve-Item Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, which asked
participants twelve questions, and had them rate the questions on a five-point scale from true to

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untrue. Finally, there was the Sociability Scale, also developed by Cheek and Buss, which asked
participants to measure preference to others versus their preference for being alone. This was
measured on the same five-point scale as the previous work. A team of researchers collected the
data.
The first finding was that the mean self-esteem of people with Specific Language
Impairment was lower than that of the control group, with differences being recorded across the
two genders. Namely, that males within the group had a higher self-esteem than females. The
second finding was that the majority of the SLI group, at least 62%, could be classified as shy
based on the scale. Finally, both those with and without SLI had high levels of a desire to be
social as opposed to antisocial. One of the conclusions that the researchers found was the shyness
was a possible independent variable effecting both language ability and shyness. In addition,
language ability was not as good of a predictive factor for self-esteem or shyness.
In the second article by Cha, Smukler, Chung, House & Bogoch (2015), their study
investigated the usage of earplugs at a rock and roll concert when the earplugs were provided to
the attendants for free. Attendance at the rock and roll concert was the independent variable,
while usage of the earplugs was the dependent variable, because the participants could choose to
use them or not.
The authors investigated six different concerts in Minnesota in a cross-sectional study.
Three of those concerts offered free earplugs, while the other three did not and acted as a
comparison group. Every other aspect, including the architecture of the buildings in which the
concerts were played, were controlled for and virtually identical. Assistants in the study walked

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throughout the room, making note of how many people wore ear protection; surveys were
conducted to investigate the individual behavior of the participants.
The study found that there was a significant increase in ear protection usage at the
locations where free ear plugs were provided for both females and males, with females using a
proportionally greater amount of ear protection. In total roughly 1% of the 318 attendees at the
control concerts used ear protection, while 8% of the individuals at the experimental concerts
used it. This amount was far lower than the 40% predicted in a previous survey, but the authors
remained optimistic about their results.
In another study dealing with hearing loss, Vogel, Verschuure, P. B. van der Ploeg, Brug
& Raat (2010), examined the amount of noise exposure through usage of MP3 players and other
modern technologies, and if it can cause permanent damage to the adolescents using them. They
had two addition research questions. “We examined (1) the extent to which adolescents’
exposure to music through earphones or headphones with MP3 players or home stereos, or at
discotheques and pop concerts, exceeds current occupational safety standards for noise exposure,
and (2) whether exposure to levels of music noise excessive of those recommended increases
hearing-related symptoms among adolescents” (Vogel et. al 2010). The independent variable is
the school-age adolescents, and the dependent variable is the amount of hearing loss.
The respondents selected 182 classrooms within 15 schools in the Dutch Netherlands,
with a total of 1516 participants. They asked the students (age 12-19) to complete a survey
regarding topics related to concert attendance and music listening habits, along with
demographic information. Using the data from the survey, they estimated the amount of time

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spent at the concert, and the average volume level of the listening devices. They divided the
group into Westerners and non-Westerners.
They found that over 50% of the study participants were above a safe threshold for sound
levels on all of the music events related to the study, and at least 9% were above 100 decibels
(equivalent to a jet-engine takeoff). Those above this threshold were more likely to experience
symptoms of hearing loss. In addition to this, even those below the safe threshold of 89 decibels
experienced symptoms of sound exposure.
In Johnson, Andrew, Walker, Morgan & Aldren (2014), they investigated the amount of
noise-induced symptoms that students garner when they attend nightclubs, at which the average
decibel sound level reaches 96, and often reaches at least 120 (the sound equivalent to a
chainsaw or thunderclap.) They also investigated the students’ knowledge of sound-induced
hearing loss. The independent variable is attendance at nightclubs, and the dependent variable is
both the amount of noise-induced symptoms and knowledge of said symptoms.
The study was conducted in 2012 over a five-day period. A 28 question survey was
distributed to students entering or leaving the University of Birmingham Medical School,
resulting in a total of 357 subjects, ranging from 18-30 years old. 60% were female, and 70%
were medical students. Questions about demographics and the occurrence of noise-induced
hearing loss questions were asked. In addition, they were asked to identify what sound levels led
to permanent damage.
The results found that at least 43% of respondents attended a nightclub on a weekly basis.
Of those who attended the nightclub without existing hearing problems, at least 88% experienced
tinnitus (ringing in ears), which is linked to permanent hearing loss. 66% experienced a notable

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reduction in sound. 86% of the students said they had never received information regarding the
dangers of noise-induced hearing loss. Only 36.1% were concerned about damaging their
hearing, with females making up a significantly larger proportion.
For the final article, Manchaiah et. al. (2015) investigated the social norms regarding
hearing loss in the countries of India, Iran, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. The independent
variable in this study was hearing loss, and the dependent variable was the society perception
among the different countries.
404 people participated in the study from the four countries listed, by using a snowball
sampling method. They used a cross-sectional study, in which the participants were asked for
five words or phrases that come to mind (free-association) when the words “hearing loss” were
presented, using different language versions of the questionnaires for the different countries, and
was coded by two of the authors to ensure internal validity. Responses could be coded in three
ways; they could be positive, neutral, or negative.
The results showed that India had the most positive connotation of hearing loss, and the
further West the country, the more likely they were to view hearing loss negative; for these
countries, the word “disability” was used frequently to describe hearing loss. “The most frequent
category, ‘disability’, was linked with other frequent categories – ‘causes of hearing loss’,
‘communication difficulties’, ‘negative mental state’, and ‘hearing instruments’ – by
approximately 10%. This suggests that approximately 10% of the people talking about disability
also talked about one of the other most frequent categories. The ‘disability’, ‘communication
difficulties’, and ‘negative mental state’ categories largely had negative connotations. However,
the ‘causes of hearing loss’ and ‘hearing instruments’ categories had more neutral or positive

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connotations. Generally, hearing loss was considered a negative phenomenon within the societies
of the countries participating in the study (Manchaiah et. al. 2015).
Methodology
The results showed that the sample included 98 males (47.1%) and 109 females (52.4%),
with one inconclusive result. Since this survey included college students, class standings were
also included. In total, there were 47 freshmen (22.5%), 63 sophomores (30.1%), 63 juniors
(30.1%), and 34 seniors (16.3%). This survey included several ethnic groups, with 10 African
Americans (4.8%), 70 Caucasians ((33.5%), 71 Asian Americans (34%) 27 Hispanic (12.9%), 3
Native Americans (1.4%), and 26 that identified as other (12.4%). There are three final
demographic values that are important. In terms of age, 1 person identified as 17 (0.5%), 21
people identified as 18 (10%) 54 people identified as 19 (25.8%), 59 people identified as 20
(28.2%), 46 people identified as 21 (22.0%), 13 people identified as 22 (6.2%), 5 people
identified as 23 (2.4%), 3 people identified as 24 (1.4%), and 1 person identified as 25 (0.5%) In
terms of major, only 5 people (2.4%) identified as being a communications major, with the
remaining 197 (94.3%) identifying as some other major. The final demographic described the
original location of those involved with the study, with 183 people living in a city (87.6%) and
18 living inside a village (3.8%). 8 of the location results were inconclusive.
The data was found via a self-administered survey, distributed to a variety of General
Education classes throughout the University of the Pacific. The distributors of the surveys, all
members of the Communication Research Methods class, read the instructions to the students in
classroom they had chosen by convenience methods. The study was voluntary, and the
information disclosed was completely confidential. A concise debrief occurred after the study

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was completed. The study took participants at least 5-10 minutes to complete. The measurements
used in this survey were both original and previously established in the literature. The survey
examined six statements using a five-scale Likert item, ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree. These statements were created by the author. A pretest could not be performed for this
study, due to time constraints.
Results
As we examine the descriptive statistics (see Table 1), we can see that for PE1 on
average people disagreed/agreed with the statement that they attended multiple concerts a year,
or were neutral about the idea, with a mean of 2.68 and a standard deviation of 1.36. In the
second question, the mean was 2.18, with a standard deviation of 1.03, meaning that most people
disagreed (or disagreed strongly) with the idea that they could not hear people speak in class.
The next question, which asked if the respondents had any hearing problems or concerns, had a
mean of 3.83 with a standard deviation of roughly 1.15, meaning that most people were neutral
on the question. For PE4, which asked if respondents listen to music at a moderate or normal
level, the mean was 3.62, with a standard deviation of .998, which means that the answers once
again fell in the neutral category. PE5’s data was much of the same story; it had a mean of 3.08,
with a standard deviation of 1.09, leaving its answers in the neutral zone. In PE6, however, the
mean is 4.11, with a standard deviation of .935, which means that a majority of people agreed
that they listened to a lot of music daily.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

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PE1 209 1 5 2.68 1.361
PE2 207 1 5 2.18 1.031
PE3 209 1 5 3.83 1.147
PE4 209 1 5 3.62 .998
PE5 209 1 5 3.08 1.091
PE6 209 1 5 4.11 .935
Valid N (listwise) 207
When we feast our eyes upon the correlation table, a few significant patterns emerge.
Attendance of concerts is significantly related to inability to hear people in class (Pearson =
0.207, P<0.01) and listening to a lot of music daily (Pearson= 0.177, P<0.05). This indicates a
possible positive relationship between listening to music daily, attending concerts, and inability
to hear in class. However, PE2’s data shows a negative correlation between being able to hear in
class and listening to a lot of music daily, (Pearson= -0.139, P<0.05) which could indicate that it
is only when these three variables are together is when they have a relationship. Interestingly,
there is also a negative correlation between not being able to hear in class and not having hearing
problems and concerns (Pearson= -0.317, P<0.01), and listening to devices at a normal moderate
sound level (Pearson= -2.43, P<0.01). PE3, “I don’t have any hearing problems/concerns”,
shows once again the same negative correlation between itself and PE2, but shows a high
correlation between itself and PE4, listening to devices at a normal sound level (Pearson= .405,
P<0.01). PE4, listening to devices at a normal/moderate level, shows a negative correlation
between itself and hearing people speak in class, or PE2, as well as a positive correlation with
not having any hearing problems or concerns. A new negative correlation with PE5, listening to

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music really loud appears (Pearson= 0.422, P<0.01), which makes logical sense given PE4 and 5
are questions that stand in opposition to each other. When we look at PE5 and 6, we find no new
correlation; the only ones listed are those that have already existed.
Table 2: Correlations
PE1 PE2 PE3 PE4 PE5 PE6
PE1 Pearson Correlation 1 .207** -.072 -.074 .014 .177*
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .300 .286 .839 .010
N 209 207 209 209 209 209
PE2 Pearson Correlation .207** 1 -.317** -.243** -.011 -.139*
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .000 .000 .873 .045
N 207 207 207 207 207 207
PE3 Pearson Correlation -.072 -.317** 1 .405** -.012 .035
Sig. (2-tailed) .300 .000 .000 .865 .616
N 209 207 209 209 209 209
PE4 Pearson Correlation -.074 -.243** .405** 1 -.422** -.081
Sig. (2-tailed) .286 .000 .000 .000 .245
N 209 207 209 209 209 209
PE5 Pearson Correlation .014 -.011 -.012 -.422** 1 .312**
Sig. (2-tailed) .839 .873 .865 .000 .000
N 209 207 209 209 209 209
PE6 Pearson Correlation .177* -.139* .035 -.081 .312** 1

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These results did not help answer the research question, for twofold reasons. First, the
research question was improperly defined and worded at the time of the survey’s creation. This
lead to some confusion between the survey designer and this author about which questions to
select for the survey; the end result of this was a series of questions that could not address the
prompt. Secondly, some of the questions provided to the survey designer were of an
underdeveloped secondary research question, which would have addressed a potential
relationship between amount of music exposure and perception of hearing differences. These
questions were not omitted before being submitted.
Discussion
Implications
In spite of these failures, several interesting correlations and implications emerged from the data
that are noteworthy. This scale should not be utilized to further investigate the topic, because it
was not created with replication in mind. First, the positive correlation between attending
concerts, not being able to hear in class, and listening to a lot of music daily, which could
indicate that the people who are more likely to attend concerts are also more likely to not hear in
class and listen to more music daily. There was also another significant positive correlation
between my questions in the survey and those of another student, which attempted to measure
individual attitudes regarding culture shock. This relationship was entirely unexpected, and is
Sig. (2-tailed) .010 .045 .616 .245 .000
N 209 207 209 209 209 209
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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statistically significant as well.
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. First, the sample used was created through
convenience sampling; the author’s college, and classes that his colleagues attended. This also
makes the study less applicable to the general population, because it does not accurately reflect
the age difference between different members of the population. This leaves the generalizability
of the study doubtful. Finally, the survey was self- reported by the participants, lowering the
validity of the study’s general results. Anyone who intends to use this study’s results should keep
these limitations in mind.
Suggestions for Research
In order to better research this topic, a population better suited for generalizability should be
used, as well as a better designed study overall. In addition, the correlations between hearing loss
and music should be further explored, as well as the correlation between hearing loss and cultural
shock. A mixed methodology survey should be used; sound should be incorporated into the
survey in some way to have a more accurate reading of the data, like one of the articles above.
Focus groups representing different cultural groups should also be a consideration; this will
allow further investigation of the relationship between culture shock, hearing loss, and perceived
sound difference.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the study examined a possible relationship between ear protection and the
student’s major. The lack of ear protection can lead to hearing loss, which disrupts the
transactional model of communication and our ability to communicate, to the point where it
could affect the psychological and emotional well-being of the individual. The motivation behind

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the study was to investigate an area not given enough weight within the communications field.
The study used a self-designed scale to measure various concepts related to ear protection, such
as music sound levels, amount of music intake, and ability to hear in class. While the results
were inclusive regarding the question, several significant correlations worthy of investigation
were highlighted, including cultural shock and hearing loss. As a result, new avenues of study
were created.

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References
Wadman, R., Durkin, K., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2008). Self-esteem, shyness, and sociability in
adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI). Journal Of Speech, Language &
Hearing Research, 51(4), 938-952 15p.
Cha, J., Smukler, S. R., Chung, Y., House, R., & Bogoch, I. I. (2015). Increase in use of
protective earplugs by Rock and Roll concert attendees when provided for free at concert
venues. International Journal Of Audiology, 54(12), 984-986 3p.
doi:10.3109/14992027.2015.1080863
Vogel, I., Verschuure, H., van der Ploeg, C., Brug, J., & Raat, H. (2010). Estimating adolescent
risk for hearing loss based on data from a large school-based survey. American Journal
Of Public Health, 100(6), 1095-1100 6p. doi:10. 2105/AJPH.2009.168690
Johnson, O., Andrew, B., Walker, D., Morgan, S., & Aldren, A. (2014). British university
students' attitudes towards noise-induced hearing loss caused by nightclub
attendance. Journal Of Laryngology & Otology, 128(1), 29-34 6p.
doi:10.1017/S0022215113003241
Manchaiah, V. A., Danermark, B. A., Ahmadi, T. A., Tomé, D. A., Zhao, F. A., Li, Q. A., & ...
Malmö University, F. P. (2015). Social representation of 'hearing loss' : cross-cultural
exploratory study in India, Iran, Portugal, and the UK. Clinical Interventions In Aging;,
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