The document is an outline for a chemistry textbook covering topics like the composition of matter, energy, and water and solutions. It defines key terms like elements, atoms, isotopes, compounds, and bonds. It describes states of matter and energy changes during chemical reactions. It also explains the polarity and hydrogen bonding of water molecules and how this relates to properties like solubility, cohesion, adhesion and temperature moderation. Finally, it covers acids, bases, pH and buffers.

1. Table of Contents Section 1 Composition of Matter Section 2 Energy Section 3 Water and Solutions Chemistry of Life

2. Objectives Define the term matter. Explain the relationship between elements and atoms. Draw and label a model of the structure of an atom. Explain how compounds affect an atom’s stability. Contrast covalent and ionic bonds . Section 1 Composition of Matter

3. Matter Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass is the quantity of matter an object has. Section 1 Composition of Matter

4. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Matter Section 1 Composition of Matter

5. Elements and Atoms Elements are made of a single kind of atom and cannot be broken down by chemical means into simpler substances. Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Section 1 Composition of Matter

6. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Element Section 1 Composition of Matter

7. Elements and Atoms, continued The Nucleus Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom. Section 1 Composition of Matter

8. Elements and Atoms, continued Electrons Electrons move about the nucleus in orbitals. An orbital is a three-dimensional region around a nucleus that indicates the probable location of an electron. Section 1 Composition of Matter

9. Elements and Atoms, continued Isotopes Atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons are called isotopes . Section 1 Composition of Matter

10. Section 1 Composition of Matter Compounds Compounds consist of atoms of two or more elements that are joined by chemical bonds in a fixed proportion.

11. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Compounds Section 1 Composition of Matter

12. Section 1 Composition of Matter Compounds, continued Covalent Bonds A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electrons.

13. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Covalent Bonding Section 1 Composition of Matter

14. Section 1 Composition of Matter Compounds, continued Ionic Bonds An ionic bond is formed when one atom gives up an electron to another. The positive ion is then attracted to a negative ion to form the ionic bond .

15. Ionic Bonding Section 1 Composition of Matter

16. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Ionic Bonding Section 1 Composition of Matter

17. Section 2 Energy Objectives Describe the physical properties of each state of matter. Describe the role of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Explain the relationship between enzymes and activation energy. Explain how oxidation and reduction reactions are linked.

18. Section 2 Energy Energy and Matter States of Matter Addition of energy to a substance can cause its state to change from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to a gas.

19. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Energy Section 2 Energy

20. Section 2 Energy Energy and Chemical Reactions Reactants are substances that enter chemical reactions. Products are substances produced by chemical reactions.

21. Energy and Chemical Reactions Section 2 Energy

22. Section 2 Energy Energy and Chemical Reactions, continued Activation Energy Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy necessary for a reaction to begin in living systems.

23. Activation Energy and Chemical Reactions Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Section 2 Energy

24. Section 2 Energy Energy and Chemical Reactions, continued Oxidation Reduction Reactions A chemical reaction in which electrons are exchanged between atoms is called an oxidation-reduction reaction .

25. Section 3 Water and Solutions Objectives Describe the structure of a water molecule. Explain how water’s polar nature affects its ability to dissolve substances. Outline the relationship between hydrogen bonding and the different properties of water. Identify the roles of solutes and solvents in solutions. Differentiate between acids and bases.

26. Section 3 Water and Solutions Polarity Water is considered to be a polar molecule due to an uneven distribution of charge. The electrons in a water molecule are shared unevenly between hydrogen and oxygen.

27. Section 3 Water and Solutions Polarity, continued Solubility of Water The polarity of water makes it effective at dissolving other polar substances such as sugars, ionic compounds, and some proteins.

28. Section 3 Water and Solutions Hydrogen Bonding A hydrogen bond is the force of attraction between a hydrogen molecule with a partial positive charge and another atom or molecule with a partial or full negative charge.

29. Section 3 Water and Solutions Hydrogen Bonding, continued Cohesion and Adhesion Cohesion is an attractive force that holds molecules of a single substance together, such as water molecules. Adhesion is the attractive force between two particles of different substances, such as water molecules and glass molecules.

30. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Comparing Cohesion and Adhesion Section 3 Water and Solutions

31. Section 3 Water and Solutions Hydrogen Bonding, continued Temperature Moderation Water has the ability to absorb a relatively large amount of energy as heat and the ability to cool surfaces through evaporation .

32. Section 3 Water and Solutions Hydrogen Bonding, continued Density of Ice Solid water is less dense than liquid water due to the shape of the water molecule and hydrogen bonding.

33. Section 3 Water and Solutions Solutions A solution consists of a solute dissolved in a solvent .

34. Section 3 Water and Solutions Acids and Bases Ionization of Water Water ionizes into hydronium ions (H 3 O + ) and hydroxide ions (OH – ).

35. Section 3 Water and Solutions Acids and Bases, continued Acids Acidic solutions contain more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions.

36. Section 3 Water and Solutions Acids and Bases, continued Bases Basic solutions contain more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions.

37. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept Bases Section 3 Water and Solutions

38. Section 3 Water and Solutions Acids and Bases, continued pH Scientists have developed a scale for comparing the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions in a solution. This scale is called the pH scale , and it ranges from 0 to 14.

39. The pH Scale Section 3 Water and Solutions

40. Section 3 Water and Solutions Acids and Bases, continued Buffers Buffers are chemicals that neutralize the effects of adding small amounts of either an acid or a base to a solution.

41. Click below to watch the Visual Concept. Visual Concept pH Section 3 Water and Solutions