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Brain Size Series 06 - How Humans Evolved Large Brains.pptx
- 1. 人腦大小系列 Brain Size Series 06 - How Humans Evolved Large Brains
- 2. 自 20 世紀 90 年代中期以來，科學家們一直在想， 我們大腦的大小是否可以通過進化的腸腦權衡來實現—— 大腦變得更大，而胃腸道變得更小、更緊湊。
- 4. 發表於2011年9月9日《自然》期刊的一篇論文 (Energetics and the evolution of human brain size) 。 Nature . 2011 Nov 9;480(7375):91-3. doi: 10.1038/nature10629. Energetics and the evolution of human brain size Ana Navarrete 1, Carel P van Schaik, Karin Isler
- 5. 論文由蘇黎世大學人類學家 Karin Isler、Ana Navarrete 和 Carel P. van Schaik 提出。 他們發現不同種類哺乳動物的大腦大小 與富含能量的脂肪庫大小之間存在負相關關係。 然而，值得注意的是，在靈長類動物中並未發現負相關。
- 6. 儲存脂肪的哺乳動物的大腦通常相對較小。 Mammals that store fat usually have relatively small brains. Credit: Ana Navarrete, Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zürich. Animal Diversity Web (Photos Erinaceus europaeus, Felis silvestris, Didelphis virginiana, Sciurus vulgaris).
- 7. 昂貴的大腦框架
- 8. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD 為了從能量的角度解釋大腦大小的進化變化， Isler 及其同事開發了一種稱為昂貴大腦框架的理論架構。
- 9. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD 根據 Isler 的說法， 該框架結合併整合了關於大腦大小進化的能量方面的早期想法和新想法。
- 14. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 大腦是昂貴的。 為了進化出比其祖先更大的大腦， 一個物種必須增加其淨能量攝入，或減少分配給其他功能的能量。
- 15. 共同作者Ana Navarrete 說： Ana Navarrete University of St Andrews · Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution PhD in Evolutionary Biology 為了檢驗該框架推斷的預測，研究人員比較了 100 種不同哺乳動物的數據。 這些數據來自 Navarrete 對 400 多具哺乳動物屍體的解剖， 她從中移除了內臟器官和脂肪沉積物。她稱量了脂肪沉積物的重量， 然後將哺乳動物內臟器官的大小與大腦的大小進行了比較。
- 16. 共同作者Ana Navarrete 說： Ana Navarrete University of St Andrews · Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution PhD in Evolutionary Biology “脂肪儲存很昂貴，不是作為紙巾，而是隨身攜帶， 所以我們假設能量可以用來儲存脂肪或維持一個大大腦。”
- 17. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 大腦是昂貴的。 為了進化出比其祖先更大的大腦， 一個物種必須增加其淨能量攝入，或減少分配給其他功能的能量。
- 18. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： “脂肪儲存和大腦大小之間的負相關表明有兩種不同的策略 （生理緩沖和認知緩衝）可以在精益期生存下來。”
- 20. 腦脂肪權衡的例外
- 21. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 靈長類動物與其他哺乳動物大腦大小和脂肪量之間關係差異的一種解釋 是靈長類動物儲存脂肪的獨特方式。
- 22. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： “靈長類動物比其他哺乳動物有更多的皮下脂肪沉積， 一些靈長類動物的尾巴儲存脂肪（例如，肥尾侏儒狐猴）。”
- 24. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： Isler 預計，一旦獲得更好的數據， 負相關將在靈長類動物中得到證實。
- 25. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： “這在我們的靈長類動物樣本中沒有被發現， 因為我們只能測量腹腔中的脂肪沉積物。”
- 26. 儘管如此，與其他類人猿相比， 人類仍以腦容量較大和相對充滿脂肪而著稱。 The increase in hominin cranial capacity over time. Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
- 27. 對於我們這個物種來說，差異可能不僅在於我們的脂肪儲存方式， 還在於我們的運動方式。 The increase in hominin cranial capacity over time. Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
- 28. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： “我們獨特的雙足運動使得攜帶脂肪的成本低於四足動物或攀爬動物。”
- 31. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 對其他靈長類動物的研究可能會進一步了解人類能量學與大腦大小之間的關係。
- 32. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： “下一步是從靈長類動物身上獲得更好的數據， 因為獲得完整的屍體並不那麼容易（病理屍檢通常會去除內臟）。”
- 33. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 最受關注的靈長類動物是類人猿(apes)， 例如大猩猩(gorillas)、黑猩猩(chimpanzees)和猩猩(orangutans)。
- 34. Karin Isler University of Zurich | UZH · Institut für Anthropologie und Anthropologisches Museum PhD Karin Isler表示： 其他項目，例如詳細研究育種過程中能源補貼的影響， 也將提供有價值的見解。
- 35. 人腦大小系列 待續
Editor's Notes
- Brain Size Series 06 - How Humans Evolved Large Brains 人腦大小系列 06 -人類如何進化出大腦
- Since the mid-1990s, scientists have wondered whether our brain size was made possible by an evolutionary gut-brain trade off—the brain becoming larger while the gastrointestinal tract became smaller and more compact. 自 20 世紀 90 年代中期以來，科學家們一直在想，我們大腦的大小是否可以通過進化的腸腦權衡來實現——大腦變得更大，而胃腸道變得更小、更緊湊。
- But a study published recently in the journal Nature refutes that idea, proposing instead that the evolution of a large brain was the outcome of a substantial energy-saving development, most likely bipedalism, which would have changed energy and fat allocation in the body, ultimately providing additional energy to the brain. 但最近發表在《自然》雜誌上的一項研究駁斥了這一觀點，相反提出大腦的進化是大量節能發展的結果，很可能是雙足行走，這最終會改變體內的能量和脂肪分配，最終 為大腦提供額外的能量。
- The new hypothesis was developed by University of Zürich anthropologists Karin Isler, Ana Navarrete, and Carel P. van Schaik, who discovered a negative relationship between brain size and the size of energy-rich fat depots in different species of mammals. Remarkably, however, the negative correlation was not found in primates. 新假設由蘇黎世大學人類學家 Karin Isler、Ana Navarrete 和 Carel P. van Schaik 提出，他們發現不同種類哺乳動物的大腦大小與富含能量的脂肪庫大小之間存在負相關關係。 然而，值得注意的是，在靈長類動物中並未發現負相關。
- An expensive-brain framework 昂貴的大腦框架
- To explain evolutionary changes in brain size from an energetic perspective, Isler and colleagues developed a theoretical architecture known as the expensive-brain framework. According to Isler, the framework incorporates and integrates earlier ideas, as well as new ones, about the energetic aspects of brain size evolution. 為了從能量的角度解釋大腦大小的進化變化，Isler 及其同事開發了一種稱為昂貴大腦框架的理論架構。 根據 Isler 的說法，該框架結合併整合了關於大腦大小進化的能量方面的早期想法和新想法。
- To explain evolutionary changes in brain size from an energetic perspective, Isler and colleagues developed a theoretical architecture known as the expensive-brain framework. According to Isler, the framework incorporates and integrates earlier ideas, as well as new ones, about the energetic aspects of brain size evolution. 為了從能量的角度解釋大腦大小的進化變化，Isler 及其同事開發了一種稱為昂貴大腦框架的理論架構。 根據 Isler 的說法，該框架結合併整合了關於大腦大小進化的能量方面的早期想法和新想法。
- At the foundation of the expensive-brain framework are two separate but complementary pathways that support adaptive increases in relative brain size. The first pathway suggests that improved diet, stabilized energy supply, and energy subsidies (such as cooperative breeding) resulted in energy surpluses. The second pathway suggests that some mammals, buffered by a constant level of energy intake or by developments such as energy-efficient locomotion, experienced changes in energy allocation. In both cases, extra energy would have been made available to the brain, ultimately permitting it to evolve to a larger size. 在昂貴的大腦框架的基礎上，有兩條獨立但互補的通路支持相對大腦大小的適應性增加。 第一條途徑表明，改善飲食、穩定能源供應和能源補貼（如合作育種）導致能源過剩。 第二種途徑表明，一些哺乳動物在能量攝入水平恆定或通過節能運動等發展的緩衝下，經歷了能量分配的變化。 在這兩種情況下，大腦都會獲得額外的能量，最終使其進化到更大的尺寸。
- At the foundation of the expensive-brain framework are two separate but complementary pathways that support adaptive increases in relative brain size. The first pathway suggests that improved diet, stabilized energy supply, and energy subsidies (such as cooperative breeding) resulted in energy surpluses. The second pathway suggests that some mammals, buffered by a constant level of energy intake or by developments such as energy-efficient locomotion, experienced changes in energy allocation. In both cases, extra energy would have been made available to the brain, ultimately permitting it to evolve to a larger size. 在昂貴的大腦框架的基礎上，有兩條獨立但互補的通路支持相對大腦大小的適應性增加。 第一條途徑表明，改善飲食、穩定能源供應和能源補貼（如合作育種）導致能源過剩。 第二種途徑表明，一些哺乳動物在能量攝入水平恆定或通過節能運動等發展的緩衝下，經歷了能量分配的變化。 在這兩種情況下，大腦都會獲得額外的能量，最終使其進化到更大的尺寸。
- At the foundation of the expensive-brain framework are two separate but complementary pathways that support adaptive increases in relative brain size. The first pathway suggests that improved diet, stabilized energy supply, and energy subsidies (such as cooperative breeding) resulted in energy surpluses. The second pathway suggests that some mammals, buffered by a constant level of energy intake or by developments such as energy-efficient locomotion, experienced changes in energy allocation. In both cases, extra energy would have been made available to the brain, ultimately permitting it to evolve to a larger size. 在昂貴的大腦框架的基礎上，有兩條獨立但互補的通路支持相對大腦大小的適應性增加。 第一條途徑表明，改善飲食、穩定能源供應和能源補貼（如合作育種）導致能源過剩。 第二種途徑表明，一些哺乳動物在能量攝入水平恆定或通過節能運動等發展的緩衝下，經歷了能量分配的變化。 在這兩種情況下，大腦都會獲得額外的能量，最終使其進化到更大的尺寸。
- At the foundation of the expensive-brain framework are two separate but complementary pathways that support adaptive increases in relative brain size. The first pathway suggests that improved diet, stabilized energy supply, and energy subsidies (such as cooperative breeding) resulted in energy surpluses. The second pathway suggests that some mammals, buffered by a constant level of energy intake or by developments such as energy-efficient locomotion, experienced changes in energy allocation. In both cases, extra energy would have been made available to the brain, ultimately permitting it to evolve to a larger size. 在昂貴的大腦框架的基礎上，有兩條獨立但互補的通路支持相對大腦大小的適應性增加。 第一條途徑表明，改善飲食、穩定能源供應和能源補貼（如合作育種）導致能源過剩。 第二種途徑表明，一些哺乳動物在能量攝入水平恆定或通過節能運動等發展的緩衝下，經歷了能量分配的變化。 在這兩種情況下，大腦都會獲得額外的能量，最終使其進化到更大的尺寸。
- Brains are expensive. To evolve a larger brain relative to its ancestor, a species must either increase their net energy intake, or reduce the allocation of energy to another function. Credit: Karin Isler, Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zürich. 大腦是昂貴的。 為了進化出比其祖先更大的大腦，一個物種必須增加其淨能量攝入，或減少分配給其他功能的能量。 圖片來源：蘇黎世大學人類學研究所和博物館的 Karin Isler。
- To test the predictions inferred by the framework, the researchers compared data from 100 different species of mammals. The data was derived from Navarrete’s dissection of more than 400 mammalian cadavers, from which she removed visceral organs and fat deposits. She weighed the fat deposits and then compared the sizes of mammals’ visceral organs to the size of their brains. 為了檢驗該框架推斷的預測，研究人員比較了 100 種不同哺乳動物的數據。 這些數據來自 Navarrete 對 400 多具哺乳動物屍體的解剖，她從中移除了內臟器官和脂肪沉積物。 她稱量了脂肪沉積物的重量，然後將哺乳動物內臟器官的大小與大腦的大小進行了比較。 ======================== Ana Navarrete University of St Andrews · Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution PhD in Evolutionary Biology
- The data revealed that all mammals studied, including primates, fit within the expensive-brain framework. The framework also accommodates what is known about the energy costs associated with fat reserves. “Fat storage is expensive, not as a tissue, but to carry around,” Isler explained. “So we assume that energy can be used either to store fat or to maintain a large brain.” 數據顯示，所有研究的哺乳動物，包括靈長類動物，都屬於昂貴的大腦框架。 該框架還包含已知的與脂肪儲備相關的能源成本。 “脂肪儲存很昂貴，不是作為紙巾，而是隨身攜帶，”Isler 解釋道。 “ 所以我們假設能量可以用來儲存脂肪或維持一個大大腦。”
- In addition, Isler said, “The negative correlation between fat stores and brain size indicates two different strategies (physiological buffering and cognitive buffering) to survive lean periods.” Whereas in physiological buffering, fat and decreased activity facilitate survival in periods of food scarcity, cognitive flexibility enables survival by making use of processes such as perceiving, recognizing, and reasoning, which allow for the intake of higher quality foods while simultaneously reducing energy costs. Many primates appear to rely on the second strategy to survive lean periods. 此外，Isler 說，“脂肪儲存和大腦大小之間的負相關表明有兩種不同的策略（生理緩沖和認知緩衝）可以在精益期生存下來。” 在生理緩衝中，脂肪和活動減少有助於在食物短缺時期生存，而認知靈活性通過使用感知、識別和推理等過程來實現生存，這些過程允許攝入更高質量的食物，同時降低能量成本。 許多靈長類動物似乎依靠第二種策略來度過經濟不景氣的時期。
- In addition, Isler said, “The negative correlation between fat stores and brain size indicates two different strategies (physiological buffering and cognitive buffering) to survive lean periods.” Whereas in physiological buffering, fat and decreased activity facilitate survival in periods of food scarcity, cognitive flexibility enables survival by making use of processes such as perceiving, recognizing, and reasoning, which allow for the intake of higher quality foods while simultaneously reducing energy costs. Many primates appear to rely on the second strategy to survive lean periods. 此外，Isler 說，“脂肪儲存和大腦大小之間的負相關表明有兩種不同的策略（生理緩沖和認知緩衝）可以在精益期生存下來。” 在生理緩衝中，脂肪和活動減少有助於在食物短缺時期生存，而認知靈活性通過使用感知、識別和推理等過程來實現生存，這些過程允許攝入更高質量的食物，同時降低能量成本。 許多靈長類動物似乎依靠第二種策略來度過經濟不景氣的時期。
- Exceptions to the brain-fat trade off 腦脂肪權衡的例外
- Isler believes that one explanation for the difference in the relationship between brain size and fat mass in primates versus other mammals is primates’ unique way of storing fat. “Primates have more subcutaneous fat deposits [than other mammals], and some primates store fat in their tails (e.g., the fat-tailed dwarf lemurs),” she said. “Alas, this was not captured in our primate sample, as we only could measure the fat deposits in the abdominal cavity.” Isler expects that the negative correlation will be confirmed in primates once better data are available. Isler 認為，靈長類動物與其他哺乳動物大腦大小和脂肪量之間關係差異的一種解釋是靈長類動物儲存脂肪的獨特方式。 “靈長類動物比其他哺乳動物有更多的皮下脂肪沉積，一些靈長類動物的尾巴儲存脂肪（例如，肥尾侏儒狐猴），”她說。 “唉，這在我們的靈長類動物樣本中沒有被捕獲，因為我們只能測量腹腔中的脂肪沉積物。” Isler 預計，一旦獲得更好的數據，負相關將在靈長類動物中得到證實。
- Isler believes that one explanation for the difference in the relationship between brain size and fat mass in primates versus other mammals is primates’ unique way of storing fat. “Primates have more subcutaneous fat deposits [than other mammals], and some primates store fat in their tails (e.g., the fat-tailed dwarf lemurs),” she said. “Alas, this was not captured in our primate sample, as we only could measure the fat deposits in the abdominal cavity.” Isler expects that the negative correlation will be confirmed in primates once better data are available. Isler 認為，靈長類動物與其他哺乳動物大腦大小和脂肪量之間關係差異的一種解釋是靈長類動物儲存脂肪的獨特方式。 “靈長類動物比其他哺乳動物有更多的皮下脂肪沉積，一些靈長類動物的尾巴儲存脂肪（例如，肥尾侏儒狐猴），”她說。 “唉，這在我們的靈長類動物樣本中沒有被捕獲，因為我們只能測量腹腔中的脂肪沉積物。” Isler 預計，一旦獲得更好的數據，負相關將在靈長類動物中得到證實。
- The fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), also known as the lesser dwarf lemur, western fat-tailed dwarf lemur, or spiny forest dwarf lemur, is endemic to Madagascar. 肥尾矮狐猴 (Cheirogaleus medius)，也被稱為小矮狐猴、西部肥尾矮狐猴或多刺森林矮狐猴，是馬達加斯加特有種。
- Isler believes that one explanation for the difference in the relationship between brain size and fat mass in primates versus other mammals is primates’ unique way of storing fat. “Primates have more subcutaneous fat deposits [than other mammals], and some primates store fat in their tails (e.g., the fat-tailed dwarf lemurs),” she said. “Alas, this was not captured in our primate sample, as we only could measure the fat deposits in the abdominal cavity.” Isler expects that the negative correlation will be confirmed in primates once better data are available. Isler 認為，靈長類動物與其他哺乳動物大腦大小和脂肪量之間關係差異的一種解釋是靈長類動物儲存脂肪的獨特方式。 “靈長類動物比其他哺乳動物有更多的皮下脂肪沉積，一些靈長類動物的尾巴儲存脂肪（例如，肥尾侏儒狐猴），”她說。 “唉，這在我們的靈長類動物樣本中沒有被捕獲，因為我們只能測量腹腔中的脂肪沉積物。” Isler 預計，一旦獲得更好的數據，負相關將在靈長類動物中得到證實。
- Isler believes that one explanation for the difference in the relationship between brain size and fat mass in primates versus other mammals is primates’ unique way of storing fat. “Primates have more subcutaneous fat deposits [than other mammals], and some primates store fat in their tails (e.g., the fat-tailed dwarf lemurs),” she said. “Alas, this was not captured in our primate sample, as we only could measure the fat deposits in the abdominal cavity.” Isler expects that the negative correlation will be confirmed in primates once better data are available. Isler 認為，靈長類動物與其他哺乳動物大腦大小和脂肪量之間關係差異的一種解釋是靈長類動物儲存脂肪的獨特方式。 “靈長類動物比其他哺乳動物有更多的皮下脂肪沉積，一些靈長類動物的尾巴儲存脂肪（例如，肥尾侏儒狐猴），”她說。 “唉，這在我們的靈長類動物樣本中沒有被捕獲，因為我們只能測量腹腔中的脂肪沉積物。” Isler 預計，一旦獲得更好的數據，負相關將在靈長類動物中得到證實。
- Still, humans stand out as being both large-brained and relatively fat compared with other apes. For our species, the difference may come down to not only our method of fat storage but also our mode of locomotion. As Isler noted, “Our peculiar bipedal locomotion makes carrying fat less costly than for quadrupeds or climbing animals.” 儘管如此，與其他類人猿相比，人類仍以腦容量大和相對肥胖而著稱。 對於我們這個物種來說，差異可能不僅在於我們的脂肪儲存方式，還在於我們的運動方式。 正如 Isler 指出的那樣，“我們獨特的雙足運動使得攜帶脂肪的成本低於四足動物或攀爬動物。”
- Still, humans stand out as being both large-brained and relatively fat compared with other apes. For our species, the difference may come down to not only our method of fat storage but also our mode of locomotion. As Isler noted, “Our peculiar bipedal locomotion makes carrying fat less costly than for quadrupeds or climbing animals.” 儘管如此，與其他類人猿相比，人類仍以腦容量大和相對肥胖而著稱。 對於我們這個物種來說，差異可能不僅在於我們的脂肪儲存方式，還在於我們的運動方式。 正如 Isler 指出的那樣，“我們獨特的雙足運動使得攜帶脂肪的成本低於四足動物或攀爬動物。”
- 正如 Isler 指出的那樣，“我們獨特的雙足運動使得攜帶脂肪的成本低於四足動物或攀爬動物。”
- There may be other exceptions to the brain-fat trade-off trend as well. For example, aquatic mammals, which are large-brained and have large fat stores, may not suffer marked increases in locomotion costs when they become fatter, as long as they maintain their hydrodynamic shape. Bears, which are also large-brained and have abundant fat stores, could also be exceptions. 腦脂肪權衡趨勢可能還有其他例外。 例如，水生哺乳動物腦容量大且脂肪儲存量大，只要它們保持其流體動力學形狀，當它們變胖時運動成本可能不會顯著增加。 同樣腦容量大且脂肪儲存豐富的熊也可能是個例外。
- It is likely that further understanding of the relationship between energetics and brain size in humans will come from studies of other primates. According to Isler, “The next step is to get better data from primates, since it is not so easy to obtain intact cadavers (the pathology postmortem usually removes internal organs).” The primates of greatest interest are apes, such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. Isler believes that other projects, such as looking in detail at the effects of energy subsidies during breeding, would provide valuable insight as well. 對其他靈長類動物的研究可能會進一步了解人類能量學與大腦大小之間的關係。 據伊斯勒說，“下一步是從靈長類動物身上獲得更好的數據，因為獲得完整的屍體並不那麼容易（病理屍檢通常會去除內臟）。” 最受關注的靈長類動物是類人猿，例如大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。 Isler 認為其他項目，例如詳細研究育種過程中能源補貼的影響，也將提供有價值的見解。
- It is likely that further understanding of the relationship between energetics and brain size in humans will come from studies of other primates. According to Isler, “The next step is to get better data from primates, since it is not so easy to obtain intact cadavers (the pathology postmortem usually removes internal organs).” The primates of greatest interest are apes, such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. Isler believes that other projects, such as looking in detail at the effects of energy subsidies during breeding, would provide valuable insight as well. 對其他靈長類動物的研究可能會進一步了解人類能量學與大腦大小之間的關係。 據伊斯勒說，“下一步是從靈長類動物身上獲得更好的數據，因為獲得完整的屍體並不那麼容易（病理屍檢通常會去除內臟）。” 最受關注的靈長類動物是類人猿，例如大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。 Isler 認為其他項目，例如詳細研究育種過程中能源補貼的影響，也將提供有價值的見解。
- It is likely that further understanding of the relationship between energetics and brain size in humans will come from studies of other primates. According to Isler, “The next step is to get better data from primates, since it is not so easy to obtain intact cadavers (the pathology postmortem usually removes internal organs).” The primates of greatest interest are apes, such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. Isler believes that other projects, such as looking in detail at the effects of energy subsidies during breeding, would provide valuable insight as well. 對其他靈長類動物的研究可能會進一步了解人類能量學與大腦大小之間的關係。 據伊斯勒說，“下一步是從靈長類動物身上獲得更好的數據，因為獲得完整的屍體並不那麼容易（病理屍檢通常會去除內臟）。” 最受關注的靈長類動物是類人猿，例如大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。 Isler 認為其他項目，例如詳細研究育種過程中能源補貼的影響，也將提供有價值的見解。
- It is likely that further understanding of the relationship between energetics and brain size in humans will come from studies of other primates. According to Isler, “The next step is to get better data from primates, since it is not so easy to obtain intact cadavers (the pathology postmortem usually removes internal organs).” The primates of greatest interest are apes, such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. Isler believes that other projects, such as looking in detail at the effects of energy subsidies during breeding, would provide valuable insight as well. 對其他靈長類動物的研究可能會進一步了解人類能量學與大腦大小之間的關係。 據伊斯勒說，“下一步是從靈長類動物身上獲得更好的數據，因為獲得完整的屍體並不那麼容易（病理屍檢通常會去除內臟）。” 最受關注的靈長類動物是類人猿，例如大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。 Isler 認為其他項目，例如詳細研究育種過程中能源補貼的影響，也將提供有價值的見解。
- Brain Size Series