1. I hope you’ll find this course both
useful and enjoyable.

2. We will open the black box concerning
mood and motivation.
The focus is on how we subjectively value
outcomes, in terms of both potential and
actual gains and losses. This helps determine
the severity of an anger response, and hence,
we can learn how to minimize it.

3. So what is mood? We start with a definition.
It is the net rate of intake of reinforcement, or
net pleasure.
That is, mood = pleasure – displeasure.
It is the currency into which all needs and
gains and losses are converted.

4. Anytime we engage in a behavior, we either
expect the pleasure to exceed the displeasure
in terms of costs or punishment, or to avoid
displeasure as much as possible. At the very
least, every behavior costs us time and
energy.
Ultimately, the brain is wired to try to use
resources efficiently to pass genes, or
reproduce. This drives the process of
biological evolution.

5. So, what decides how much we value
something?
Well, first there is a minimum amount of
certain things we must have, like food.
We have to take in calories, for
example, to at least correspond to our
activity levels. And then, there is this
simple concept:

6. The more of something you have, the less
you value each additional unit. And
conversely, the less of something you
have, the more you value each
additional unit.
Most of us are less likely to share potato
chips or money, for example, the less of
each we have.

7. These facts can be illustrated with the curve below.
Utility is a word that means subjective value.

8. Notice how each step in the curve is smaller with respect to
utility on the way up. Subjective value is falling.

9. So, the higher you are on the curve, the more of something
you’ve taken in and the less of it you need. In terms of
potato chips, you are getting full.

10. This also means mood is increasing the closer you are to
getting full. The same is true of money, or anything you
need or want, all of which are translated into mood.

11. So, your starting point can be anywhere on the curve and you
can move up or down. In terms of expectations, expected
gains are further up the curve, and expected losses down.

12. Given the same level of objective expected gains and losses,
subjectively the losses will be more highly valued than the
gains.

13. Hence, the lower you are on the curve, the lower the mood,
and the less net motivation you have to engage in a certain
behavior. Your mind is conserving resources.

14. As mood decreases, net motivation decreases at an increasing
rate, and vice versa.

15. This very similar to the monetary wealth effect. Generally, the more dollars
you have, the more likely you are to spend each dollar. Utility shrinks.

16. Depression can be understood in these terms.
As mood gets lower, the values of both gains
and losses increase, but those of losses faster
than gains.
Again, marginal
utility is subjective
value.
mood

17. So, there is a motivational trap, which grows
more severe as mood decreases.
Again, marginal
utility is subjective
value.
mood

18. So there increased loss sensitivity and
obviously lower moods lead to more severe
negative emotional responses, such as fear,
sadness, and anger.
Keeping moods high, by sustainably meeting
your needs and wants, will reduce the
average severity of anger responses.

19. Low moods also cause preferences to shift to more
rewarding and immediate gains to try to
increase mood as much as possible.
Examples include increased appetites for higher
calorie(comfort) foods, more immediate and
“superficial” sex, and a decreased focus on the
long term versus short.
This is an unconscious process and feels natural,
even if consciously displeasing.

20. In this context, it may be clear why medication
is needed to treat depression and related
problems.
Given that depression results in a motivational
trap, depending on the patient to seek and
obtain more reward from his/her
environment is often a poor bet.

21. Various medications can lift mood directly, or
indirectly to then allow patients more
motivation to develop better ways to meet
their own needs and wants. Examples are:
1. Antidepressants, which lift mood directly via
serotonin. However, they fail to work for
about half of patients. These include
Prozac, Lexapro, etc.

22. Anxiolytics, or anti-anxiety drugs. These lift
mood indirectly by increasing GABA, which
decreases the perceived values of losses and
response costs. These includeValium,
Tegretol, etc.
Stimulants. These includeAdderall, Ritalin,
caffiene, etc. Given side effects and
addictiveness, these are not recommended
for treatment of depression.

23. We’ll focus on emotions.

24. Progress!