3. ¡ >3.5cm below the right costal margin in
a newborn
¡ Rubbery (hepatitis)
¡Tender (acute hepatitis, right heart
failure, venous congestion)
¡ Firm (cirrhosis)
¡ Nodular (malignancy)
Signs of an Abnormal Liver
4. ī§ Note that liver is easily palpated in most
children at 1-2 cm below the right costal
margin. A normal liver should feel soft
and is easily moveable upon inspiration.
5. Mechanisms of Hepatomegaly
INCREASE INTHE NUMBER OR
SIZE OFTHE CELLS INTRINSICTO
THE LIVER
INFILTRATION OF
CELLS
INCREASED SIZE OF
VASCULAR SPACE
INCREASED SIZE OF
BILIARY SPACE
IDIOPATHIC
(? âBENIGNâ)
6. Mechanisms of Hepatomegaly
1INCREASE INTHE NUMBER OR SIZE OFTHE CELLS
INTRINSICTOTHE LIVER
Storage
Fat:malnutrition, obesity, metabolic liver disease (diseases of
fatty acid oxidation and Reye syndromeâlike illnesses), lipid
infusion (total parenteral nutrition), cystic fibrosis, diabetes
mellitus, medication related, pregnancy
Specific lipid storage diseases: Gaucher, Niemann-Pick,
Wolman disease
Glycogen:glycogen storage diseases (multiple enzyme defects);
total parenteral nutrition; infant of diabetic mother, Beckwith
syndrome
Miscellaneous: Îą1-antitrypsin dificiency, Wilson disease,
hypervitaminosis A, neonatal iron storage disease
13. ī§>2 cm below left costal margin
ī§Abnormally rough surface
ī§Tender
ī§Hard
Signs of Abnormal Spleen
14. NOTE
ī§ A soft, thin spleen may be palpable in
15% of neonates, 10% of normal
children, and 5% of adolescents.
ī§ In most individuals, the spleen must be
2â3 times its normal size before it is
palpable
16. Pathophysiology of
splenomegaly
ī§ 1ANATOMIC LESIONS
Cysts, pseudocysts ,Hamartomas, Polysplenia
syndrome Hemangiomas and lymphangiomas
Hematoma or rupture (traumatic) Hamartoma
2HYPERPLASIA CAUSED BY HEMATOLOGIC
DISORDERS
Acute and Chronic Hemolysis[*]
Hemoglobinopathies (sickle cell disease in
infancy with or without sequestration crisis
31. 2 Autoimmune
Systemic type of rheumatoid arthritis , SLE
3Drugs
Phenytoin
4Others
Langerhanâs cell histiocytosis
32. Lymphadenopathy
ī§ Most lymph nodes are not usually palpable in
the newborn.With antigenic exposure,
lymphoid tissue increases in volume so that the
cervical, axillary, and inguinal nodes are often
palpable during childhood.
ī§ They are not considered enlarged until their
diameter is:
ī§ > 1 cm for cervical and axillary nodes
ī§ > 1.5 cm for inguinal nodes.
33. Lymphadenopathy
ī§ Lymph node enlargement is
caused by proliferation of normal
lymphoid elements or by
infiltration with malignant or
phagocytic cells
âĸ Acutely infected nodes are usually tender. There may
also be erythema and warmth of the overlying skin
âĸ Fluctuance - abscess formation.
âĸTuberculous nodes may be matted.
âĸChronic infection- many signs are not present.
âĸTumor-bearing nodes -firm and nontender and may
be matted or fixed to the skin or underlying
structures.
34. ī§ Generalized adenopathy (enlargement of >2
noncontiguous node regions) is caused by
systemic disease and is often accompanied by
abnormal physical findings in other systems.
ī§ Regional adenopathy is most frequently the
result of infection in the involved node and/or
its drainage area
ī§ When due to infectious agents other than bacteria,
adenopathy may be characterized by atypical anatomic
areas, a prolonged course, a draining sinus, lack of prior
pyogenic infection, and unusual clues in the history (cat
scratches, tuberculosis exposure, venereal disease).
35. Generalized Lymphadenopathy
INFANT CHILD ADOLESCENT
COMMON CAUSES
Syphilis Viral infection Viral infection
Toxoplasmosis EBV EBV
CMV CMV CMV
HIV HIV HIV
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasmosis
Syphilis
43. īŧIs there any history of recent infection? (eg: rash, pharyngitis, cough, SOB, fever,
exposure, poorfeeding, malaise etc)
īŧHas the child consumed any contaminated food or experienced any diarrhea and/or
vomiting?
īŧIs there any history of loss of consciousness or seizures?
īŧ Are there any constitutional symptoms such as fever, night sweats, or weight loss?
īŧIs there any abnormal bruising, bone pain, or history of frequent infections?
īŧDoes the child have any preexisting liver diseases, lung diseases, or congenital heart
diseases?
īŧWere there any complications during pregnancy, delivery, and after delivery?
īŧ Are there any growth (weight gain) and developmental concerns?
īŧWas there persistent, unresolved jaundice following delivery?
īŧIs there any maternal history of hepatitis B or C, CMV, EBV or HIV?
īŧ Does the child have any history of surgeries or transfusions?
īŧIs there any family history of cystic fibrosis, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, storage
diseases, liver diseases, heart diseases, autoimmune diseases or malignancy?
īŧHas the child had any change in stool color?What color are his/her stools?
īŧIs there any history of drug or toxin ingestion? Is there any exposure to radiation?
īŧIs the child on any medications right now?
īŧIs there any recent travel,trauma?
Questions to Ask
44. ī§SKIN: Petechiae and purpura (thrombocytopenia, autoimmune
disorder, malignancy); jaundice (hemolytic anemia or liver disease);
rashes (infection, lupus, RA, infective endocarditis)
ī§EYE: Icterus, uveitis, iritis (sarcoidosis or rheumatoid arthritis), cherry
red retinal spots or cloudy cornea (lipid storage disease) Kayser-Fleischer
(Wilsonâs disease)
ī§CVS/ RESPIPATORY SYSTEM:
Murmur, SOB, fatigue (anemia or heart failure) , abnormal heart sounds
(S3, S4) (congenital heart diseases), SOB/ abnormal breath sounds
(alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency)
ī§GIT:
tenderness, distension, ascites, hepatosplenomegaly
ī§MSK:
joint tenderness (RA, lupus, hepatitis), bone pain (malignancy)
ī§NEUROLOGICAL: Poor vision (osteopetrosis), loss of developmental
milestones (storage diseases, chronic infection, or immunodeficiency)
General Physical examination
45. Examine this patient who may have chronic liver disease
SIGNS OF CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE
1Examine the fingers for white nails (leukonychia) with loss of the
lunula (half-moons at the nail base) and ankle oedema - all due to
hypoalbuminaemia.
2Look for spider naevi (upper half of the body), palmar erythema,
gynaecomastia and testicular atrophy - all due to oestrogen excess.
3Look for bruising due to:
âĸ Thrombocytopenia (hypersplenism)
âĸ Reduced hepatic synthesis of coagulation factors (II, VII, IX and
X)
âĸ Multiple falls due to alcohol intoxication.
4Look for muscle wasting from malnutrition and/or liver synthetic failure.
5Examine for signs of liver failure:
âĸ Look for a coarse flap of the outstretched hands (asterixis) due to
metabolic brainstem dysfunction (other causes include heart,
renal and respiratory failure)
âĸ Smell the patient's breath to detect fetor hepaticus (a sweetish,
musty smell) due to accumulation of the volatile amine, methyl
mercaptan
âĸ Check for signs of hepatic encephalopathy (grade 1-4) due to the
metabolic changes affecting cerebral function.
46. LIVER EXAMINATION
Palpation
ī§ Start in the right iliac fossa. Place your hand flat on the
abdomen with your fingers pointing upwards and
sensing fingers (index and middle) lateral to the rectus
muscle, so that your finger tips lie parallel to rectus
sheath
ī§
Keep your hand stationary. Ask the patient to breathe
in deeply through the mouth. Feel for the liver edge as
it descends on inspiration.
ī§
Move your hand progressively up the abdomen, 1 cm at
a time, between each breath the patient takes, until
you reach the costal margin or detect the liver edge.
47. ī§ Right lobe is palpable in the right
hypochondrium or lumber region depending
on extent of enlargement
ī§ Left lobe is palpable in the epigastrium.it
indicates chronic hepatomegaly.
49. Percussion:
ī§ Liver span is determined better by percussion than by palpation
in children.
ī§ Percuss along the midclavicular line to find the upper margin of
the liver.The transition from resonance to dullness indicates the
upper liver border.It usually lies in 4th intercostal
space. Resonance below the 5th intercostal space suggests
emphysema or occasionally the interposition of the transverse
colon between the liver and the diaphragm (Chilaiditi's sign).
Measure the distance in centimetres below the costal margin in
the midclavicular line or from the upper border of dullness to the
palpable liver edge.
ī§ Continue percussion down the subcostal region keeping fingers
parallel to the ribs.The note turns resonant beyond the lower
margin of liver
50. Scratch test
ī§Place the diaphragm of your stethoscope just
above the right costal margin at the midclavicular
line.
ī§Lightly scratch the skin of the abdomen with the
fingertip along the midclavicular line, starting from
below the umbilicus towards the costal margin.
ī§ A change in sound indicates the liver edge.
52. Liver Size
Liver is usually described in cm palpable below the
right costal margin in the mid clavicular line
Liver span is distance b/w upper & lower border of
liver..
Note the size ,surface,consistency, margins,
tenderness, or the presence of any masses or
bruits
53. Normal liver size estimations are based on age-
related clinical indices, such as:
~ the degree of extension of the liver edge below
the costal margin;
~ the span of dullness to percussion;
~or the length of the vertical axis of the liver,as
estimated from imaging techniques.
ī§The liver span increases linearly with body
weight and age in both sexes, ranging from
â4.5â5.0 cm at 1 wk of age to â7â8 cm in boys
and 6.0â6.5 cm in girls by 12 yr of age.
ī§Normal liver span in adults 10 â 15 cm
56. ~Downward displacement of the liver by the
diaphragm (pneumothorax ,emphysema or
respiratory distress) or thoracic organs can
create an erroneous impression of
hepatomegaly.But total liver span is normal.
~Sometimes liver may be palpable below
costal margin but total span is reduced
suggesting cirrhosis
NOTE
~The lower edge of the right lobe of the liver
extends downward (Riedel lobe) and is
palpable as a broad mass in some normal
people
57. Surface
ī§ Gently roll the fingers over the surface of liver
ī§ Nodular in cirrhosis & malignancy
Consistency
ī§ Hard as a bone in hepatic malignancy
ī§ Firm as tip of nose in chronic conditions,like
obstructive jaundice,cirrhosis or haemolytic
anaemias
ī§ Soft in acute viral hepatitis or CCF
58. Margins
ī§ Smooth in normal liver
ī§ Sharp and leafy in cirrhosis or malignancy
Tenderness
ī§ While palpating the liver see if pt winces or
not
ī§ Liver is tender in acute viral hepatitis , CCF ,
hepatic amoebiasis , pyaemic abscess of liver
,hepatoma,actinomycosis,weilâs disease
59. Bruits over liver
May be heard in hepatoma,AV malformation,
hepatocellular cancer & alcoholic hepatitis
Pulsatile liver
Indicates tricuspid regurgitation
60. Palpation:
ī§Patient should be supine and relaxed
ī§Relaxation is improved if legs and neck are
slightly flexed
ī§Start palpating from lower left quadrant in
infants, as the spleen tends to enlarge inferiorly
towards the left iliac fossa.
ī§ Palpation should be started from the right
lower quadrant in older children.
Splenic Examinaion
61. ī§ Start from the umbilicus. Keep your hand stationary
and ask the patient to breathe in deeply through the
mouth. Feel for the splenic edge as it descends on
inspiration (Fig. A).
ī§
Move your hand diagonally upwards towards the left
hypochondrium 1 cm at a time between each breath
the patient takes.
ī§
Feel the costal margin along its length, as the
position of the spleen tip is variable.
ī§
If you cannot feel the splenic edge, ask the patient to
roll towards you and on to his right side; repeat the
above. Palpate with your right hand, placing your left
hand behind the patient's left lower ribs, pulling the
ribcage forward (Fig. B).
63. Palpation of the spleen
ī§ With the patient in the right lateral position,
minimal splenic enlargement can be detected
by examining either from in front or in back of
the patient
64. Palpation
The Hooking maneuver of Middleton
o place the patientâs Left fist under their Left
posterior chest
o position yourself on the patientâs Left side,
facing the patientâs feet
o using both hands, curl your fingers under the
patientâs Left costal margin
o ask the patient to take a long, deep breath Ã
attempt to palpate the spleen with your
fingertips
65.
66. Castellâs method:
ī§ percuss the lowest intercostal space in the
left anterior axillary line.
ī§In normal cases dull note is present only on
inspiration
ī§In splenomegaly dull note is present both in
inspiration and expiration
ī§More useful in infectious mononucleosis
where direct palpation can cause rupture
Percussion
67.
68. Traubeâs space:
bound superiorly by the 6th rib; laterally
by the mid-axillary line and inferiorly by
the costal margin.
Dullness to percussion indicates
splenomegaly
69.
70.
71. Percussion by Nixonâs method
o place the patient in Right lateral decubitus
o begin percussion midway along the Left
costal margin
o proceed in a line perpendicular to the Left
costal margin
o if the upper limit of dullness extends >8 cm
above the Left costal margin, in adults, this
indicates possible splenomegaly
73. Spleen size
~The size of spleen is measured from the left
subcostal margin in the midclavicular line to
the tip along the direction of enlargement
~It is also described in cm below the subcostal
margin
Mild splenomegaly
Only tip is palpable
or it is palpable just 1-2 cm below costal margin
Moderate splenomegaly
Easily palpable,but not reaching umbilicus
or if it is palpable 3-7 cm below the costal margin
Massive splenomegaly
Extending upto umbilicus or beyond
Or if it is palpable >7cm below the costal margin
75. Hackettâs classification of
splenomegaly
GRADE STAGE EXAMINATION
0 Not palpable
MILD 1 Just palpable
MODERATE 2 Midway between costal margin
&umbilicus
MODERATE 3 Upto umbilicus
SEVERE 4 b/w umbilicus & pubic symphysis
SEVERE 5 Upto pubic symphysis
76.
77. Consistency
Soft in enteric fever
Firm in hemolytic anaemia
A moderate to severely enlarged spleen is
usually Firm
Splenic notch
Felt as an indentation on the lower medial
border of spleen
79. D/D
ī§ Left kidney mass
ī§ Left adrenal mass
ī§ Left colonic mass
ī§ Retroperitoneal mass
80. Distinguishing feature Spleen Left Kidney
Mass is smooth and
regular in shape
More likely Polycystic kidneys are
bilateral irregular
masses
Mass descends in
inspiration
Yes, travels
superficially and
diagonally
Yes, moves deeply and
vertically
Able to feel deep to the
mass
Yes No
Palpable notch on the
medial surface
Yes No
Bilateral masses
palpable
No Sometimes (e.g.
polycystic kidneys)
Percussion resonant
over the mass
No Sometimes
Mass extends beyond
the midline
Sometimes No (except with horse-
shoe kidney)
81. SPLEEN MALIGNANT
GROWTH OF
STOMACH/
PANCREAS
EDGE,NOTCH present absent
CROSSINGTO
RIGHT SIDE
If splenic
enlargement is
severe,it crosses
the midline at or
below the
umbilicus
In pancreatic
enlargement the
tumour crosses
the midline above
umbilicus
82. SPLEEN CA SPLENIC
FLEXURE OF
COLON
DIRECTON OF
ENLARGEMENT
More forwards and
inwards
transverse
EDGE,NOTCH present absent
PERCUSSION dull resonant
INTESTINAL
SYMPTOMS
abdominal Blood,fullness,mucus
in stools,alternating
diarrhea and
constipation
BARIUM STUDIES normal Show pathological
lesion
83. Pseudosplenomegaly.
ī§ Abnormally enlarged mesenteric connections may
produce a wandering or ptotic spleen.
ī§ An enlarged left lobe of the liver, a left upper quadrant
mass, or a splenic hematoma may be mistaken for
splenomegaly.
ī§ Splenic cysts may contribute to splenomegaly or mimic
it; these may be congenital (epidermoid) or acquired
(pseudocyst) after trauma or infarction. Cysts are
usually asymptomatic and are found on radiologic
evaluation.
ī§ Splenosis after splenic rupture or an accessory spleen
(present in 10% of normal individuals) may also mimic
splenomegaly; most are not palpable.
ī§ The syndrome of congenital polysplenism includes
cardiac defects, left-sided organ anomalies, bilobed
lungs, biliary atresia, and pseudosplenomegaly
84. Hypersplenism.
ī§ Increased splenic function (sequestration or destruction of
circulating cells) results in peripheral blood cytopenia,
increased bone marrow activity, and splenomegaly. It is
usually secondary to another disease and may be cured by
treatment of the underlying condition or, if absolutely
necessary, moderated by splenectomy.
Congestive Splenomegaly (Banti
Syndrome).
ī§ Splenomegaly may result from obstruction in the hepatic,
portal, or splenic veins .
ī§ Septic omphalitis or thrombophlebitis may be spontaneous
or may occur as a result of umbilical venous catheterization
in neonates and may also result in secondary obliteration of
these vessels.
ī§ Splenic venous flow may be obstructed by masses of sickled
erythrocytes.
ī§ When the spleen is the site of vascular obstruction,
splenectomy cures hypersplenism.
86. Visceroptosis
ī§ Visceroptosis is a prolapse or a sinking of
the abdominal viscera (internal organs)
below their natural position. Any or all of
the organs may be displaced downward
ī§ May give false impression of
hepatomegaly or splenomegaly
87. Lymph nodes
General principles
âĸInspect for visible
lymphadenopathy.
âĸPalpate one side at a time using the fingers
of each hand in turn.
âĸCompare with the nodes on the
contralateral side.
88. ī§ Assess:
īē Site
īē Size
īē Consistency
īē Tenderness.
ī§ Determine whether the node is fixed to:
īē Surrounding and deep structures
īē Skin.
ī§ Measure the main nodes.
89. Cervical nodes
ī§ From behind, examine the submental, submandibular,
preauricular, tonsillar, supraclavicular and deep cervical nodes in
the anterior triangle of the neck
ī§ Palpate for the scalene nodes by placing the index finger
between the sternocleidomastoid muscle and clavicle. Ask the
patient to tilt his head to the same side and press firmly down
towards the first rib.
ī§ From the front of the patient, palpate the posterior triangles, up
the back of the neck and the posterior auricular and occipital
90. Axillary nodes
ī§ From the patient's front or
side, palpate the right axilla
with the left hand and vice
versa
ī§ Gently place the finger tips
into the apex of the axilla and
then draw them downwards,
feeling the medial, anterior
and posterior axillary walls in
turn. Keep the nails short to
avoid causing discomfort.
91. Epitrochlear nodes
ī§ Support the patient's
right wrist with the left
hand, grasp his partially
flexed elbow with the
right hand, and use the
thumb to feel for the
epitrochlear node.
Examine the left
epitrochlear node with
the left thumb
92. Inguinal nodes
ī§ Examine for the inguinal
and popliteal nodes with
the patient lying down.
ī§ Palpate over the
horizontal chain, which
lies just below the
inguinal ligament, and
then over the vertical
chain along the line of
the saphenous vein
93. Laboratory Investigations
âĸComplete blood count, peripheral blood smear, ESR
ī§AST, ALT, GGT, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, total
protein, albumin, prothrombin time
ī§Serum electrolytes and BUN
ī§Urinalysis
ī§CBC with differential and peripheral blood smear
ī§Fasting blood glucose
ī§Hepatitis serology
ī§Additional investigations based on clinical suspicion: EKG,
total and direct bilirubin, lipid profile, ceruloplasmin, alpha-
1-antitrypsin (AAT), blood culture, autoantibodies, alpha
fetoprotein, Viral serology (EBV, CMV, Parvovirus B19, HIV
etc.), acid beta-glucosidase (â in Gaucher disease), ANA (for
SLE), bone marrow aspirate and biopsy
95. ī§Abdominal ultrasound with Doppler
Hyperechogenic hepatic parenchyma can be seen
with metabolic disease (glycogen storage disease
ī§Abdominal CT or MRI (hepatic masses, biliary tree,
anatomical obstructions)
ī§Echocardiogram (congenital heart defects)
ī§ERCP (stones)
Liver Imaging
Liver Biopsy
96. Hepatomegaly.The right lobe of the liver extends well below the lower pole of the right kidney
(K) and measures 20 cm (between cursors, +), well exceeding the normal limit of 15.5 cm
97. Splenic Imaging (not
routinely done)
ī§Ultrasound (for identifying space occupying
lesions such as cysts or abcess and
differentiating between kidney vs splenic
abnormalities)
ī§CT scan or MRI: (for ruling out disseminated
malignancy and liver diseases)
ī§Radioactive (Tc-99m) sulfur colloid
scintigraphy (the only radiological modality
that provides functional information)
98. Splenomegaly - In this picture we can see the affinity between spleen
and left kidney.
We can not measure just from such picture, but spleen is undoubtedly
enlarged.
99. Lymph nodes
ī§ Fine-needle aspiration
ī§ Cutting needle biopsies
ī§ Excisional biopsy,
If pus is present, it may be aspirated, with
CT or ultrasound guidance, or if it is
extensive, it will require incision and
drainage. Gram stain and culture of the
pus should be obtained. Surgical drainage
is required for an abscess.
100. Imaging Studies
âĸChest X-ray - Mediastinal
adenopathy and underlying
pulmonary diseases.
âĸUltrasound of the lymph node
âĸNuclear medicine scanning -
lymphomas.
âĸLymphangiography -
assessment of the lower
abdominal lymph nodes &
response to therapy.
âĸCT or US guided lymph node
biopsy
101. Some common causes of
hepatosplenomegaly c LAP
CAUSE CLINICAL FEATURES DIAGNOSTIC
INVESTIGATION
TYPHOID Stepladder rise of fever , relative
bradycardia, rose spots , pea soup
stools, HSM , LAP
PCR , Widal test , blood
culture , leukopenia
MILIARY TB High fever , failure to thrive , may
be CNS lesions , HSM , LAP
H/OTB , +ve Mantoux
test , miliary mottling on
chest X ray
BRUCELLOSI
S
High fever , sweating , jaundice ,
HSM , LAP
H/O of association with
cattle , Brucella
agglutination test,
culture
CONGENITAL
SYPHILIS
LBW , prolonged physiological
jaundice , codyloma , snuffles ,
maculopapular rash , bullous
lesion , pseudoparalysis of parrot
H/O repeated abortions ,
still birth , child born
with syphilitic
stigmata,VDRL , FTA-
102. CAUSE CLINICAL FEATURES DIAGNOSTIC
INVESTIGATION
INFECTIOUS
MONONUCLEOSIS
Sore throat , fever , rash , LAP
, HSM
P/S Downey cells , Paul
Bunnel test
MALARIA Fever , chills & rigors
,sweating, anaemia,HSM
QBC , thick & thin smear
KALA AZAR Fever , anaemia , ashen grey
colour , jaundice
,cachexia,HSM
Endemic area ,P/S LD
bodies , Montenegro
test
HAEMOLYTIC
ANAEMIA
Anaemia 4-6 months after
birth
Jaundice , progessive
enlargement of skull bones,
malar prominence,HSM,LAP
P/S , osmotic fragility
test, Na metabisulphite
,electrophoresis , RBC
survival time
LEUKAEMIA Pallor , pyrexia , purpura , pain
, HSM ,LAP
FNAC, bone marrow
aspiration
LYMPHOMA Advanced stage: HSM, LAP Gland biopsy , Reed
Sternberg cell
Editor's Notes
Nonlymphoid masses (cervical rib, thyroglossal cyst, branchial cleft cyst or infected sinus, cystic hygroma, goiter, sternomastoid muscle tumor, thyroiditis, thyroid abscess, neurofibroma) occur frequently in the neck and less often in other areas.
especially syphilis or lymphogranuloma venereum)
Cutting needle biopsies
will occasionally provide sufficient material for an unequivocal diagnosis and subtyping of the lymphoma
Xray including tuberculosis, coccidioidomycosis, lymphomas, and neuroblastoma.
provides an extremely accurate assessment of the lower abdominal lymph nodes and, because of retained contrast material, allows repeat examinations and assessment of the response to therapy.