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A CUTE RES PIRATORY
DI STRESS S YNDROME
DEFINITION
American-European Consensus Conference (1994)
• Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
The acute onset of respiratory failure
Bilateral infiltrates on chest radiograph
Hypoxemia as defined by a PaO2/FiO2 ratio ≤200 mmHg
No evidence of left atrial hypertension or pulmonary capillary pressure <18 mmHg (if measured)
to rule out cardiogenic edema
• Acute Lung Injury (ALI)
Different from ARDS only for the degree of hypoxemia, it was defined by a PaO2/FiO2 ≤300
mmHg.
American-European Consensus Conference (AECC). 1994
ALI V.S. ARDS
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2018.
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2018.
THE BERLIN DEFINITION
OF ARDS
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
Sehgal IS, Agarwal R, Dhooria S, Prasad KT, Muthu V, Aggarwal AN. Risk stratification of acute respiratory distress syndrome using a
PAO2: FIO2 threshold of 150 mmhg: A retrospective analysis from an indian intensive care unit. Lung India. 2020;37(6):473.
PHYSIOLOGY
• The normal lung is structured to facilitate
carbon dioxide excretion and oxygen
transfer across the distal alveolar–capillary unit
• In healthy tissue, a careful balance of forces
governs the exchange of fluid and protein
between the plasma in the capillary, the
surrounding interstitium, and the draining
lymphatics
• Capillary wall of the pulmonary bed is not a
homogenous single layer of endothelial
cells; It is lined with glycocalyx on the
luminal surface
• Glycocalyx forms “hairy tufts’ into the
lumen, which allow it to serve as a
molecular sieve to plasma proteins
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2018.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
In ARDS, these system are thrown out of balance
 the functions of the glycocalyx are disrupted:
- Dysfunctional NO signaling
- Increased protein and fluid permeability
- Increased coagulation
- Inflammation and augmented leukocyte adhesion
This disruption can be caused by:
• pathogens and their toxins
• barrier-destabilizing factors generated by alveolar
macrophages
• circulating leukocytes and platelets
• proinflammatory signalling molecules such as
tumour necrosis factor (TNF), the inflammasome
product IL-1β, angiopoietin 2, vascular endothelial
growth factor, platelet-activating factor and others
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2018.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• Activation TLR on ATII cells and resident
macrophages  chemokines secretion
 recruit immune cells to airspaces
• Neutrophils release inflammatory
mediators  degrading integrity of
capillary endothelial cells  increase
capillary permeability  influx of
oedematous fluid  interstitial edema
 hypoxemia and hypercapnia 
impair vectorial sodium transport 
reducing alveolar oedema clearance
Civetta: Critical Care,4th edition Chapter 136: Acute Lung Injury & Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
CLINICAL PROGRESSION
• Phase 1: Acute Injury
• Normal physical examination and chest
radiograph
• Tachycardia, tachypnea, and respiratory
alkalosis develop
• Phase 2: Latent Period
• Lasts ~ 6–48 h after injury: remains clinical
stable
• Hyperventilation & hypocapnia persist; mild
increase work breathing
• Minor abnormalities on physical examination
and chest radiograph
Gomez AC: Pulmonary insufficiency in non-thoracic trauma [discussion]. J Trauma. 1968;8:666
• Phase 3: Acute Respiratory
Failure
• Decreased lung compliance: marked tachypnea &
dyspnea
• Diffuse infiltrates on chest radiograph
• High-pitched crackles heard throughout all lung fields
• Phase 4: Severe Abnormalities
• Severe hypoxemia unresponsive to therapy
• Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
• lethargy, obtunded
RADIOGRAPHY
Tagliabue M, Casella TC, Zincone GE, Fumagalli R, Salvini E. CT and chest radiography in the evaluation of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Radiol. May 1994;35(3):230-4
PREDICTING ARDS
• There is neither strong evidence nor consensus regarding whether or how patients should be screened for
ARDS
• Clinical scores have been developed to predict ARDS in at-risk patients, most prominently the Lung Injury
Prediction Score (LIPS) and Early Acute Lung Injury (EALI) score
Bauman ZM, Gassner MY, Coughlin MA, Mahan M, Watras J. Lung injury prediction score is useful in predicting acute respiratory distress syndrome and mortality in surgical critical care patients. Critical Care Research and Practice. 2015;2015
CLINICAL RISK FACTORS PREDICTIVE OF POOR OUTCOMES
• Independent predictors repeatedly: higher mortality rates
– Severity of the illness
– Non-pulmonary organ dysfunction
– Comorbid diseases, Sepsis, Liver dysfunction/cirrhosis
– Advanced age
• Other independent risk factors:
– Organ transplantation
– HIV infection and Immunosuppression
– Active malignancy
– Mechanisms of lung injury
– Barotrauma
– Fio2 (High)
Geiser, Thomas, et al. "Interleukin-1β augments in vitro alveolar epithelial repair." American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 279.6 (2000): L1184-L1190
Ware, Lorraine B. "Prognostic determinants of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: impact on clinical trial design." Critical care medicine 33.3 (2005): S217-S222.
Ferguson, Niall D., et al. "Acute respiratory distress syndrome: underrecognition by clinicians and diagnostic accuracy of three clinical definitions." Critical care medicine 33.10 (2005):
2228-2234.
MANAGEMENT
• The main principle in ARDS management is to provide the patient adequate
pulmonary support and also to arrest and prevent further insult to other organ
systems while correcting the underlying causes and drivers of the ARDS
• Only a minority of ARDS patients die from respiratory failure alone whereas a majority
die from their primary illness or from secondary complications such as sepsis and
multisystem organ failure
• What does improve outcomes of ARDS patients is the early application and adherence
to a strategy of low tidal volume ventilation (LTVV) which is also known as lung
protective ventilation (LPV).
MANAGEMENT
Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ
open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
MANAGEMENT OF ARDS IN PRACTICE
Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ
open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
CONT’D
Griffiths, Mark JD, et al.
"Guidelines on the management of
acute respiratory distress
syndrome." BMJ open respiratory
research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
ATS/ ESICM/ SCCM GUIDELINES:
MECHANICAL VENTILATION IN ADULT
PATIENTS WITH ARDS
• Limit tidal volumes (4–8 ml/kg PBW) and inspiratory pressures (plateau
pressure,30 cm H2O)
• Receive prone positioning for more than 12 hours per day
• HFOV not be used routinely in patients with moderate or severe ARDS
• Adult patients with moderate or severe ARDS receive higher rather than
lower levels of PEEP
• Adult patients with ARDS receive Recruitement Manuvers
Fan, Eddy, et al. "An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care
Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome." American
journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 195.9 (2017): 1253-1263.
MAJOR HARMFUL PULMONARY EFFECTS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE VENTILATOR
LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
MORTALITY
 ARDS mortality rates - 31% to 74%  30-58% 1990s
– Variability: difference populations studied & definitions used.
– Age & etiology of lung injury
 Main causes of death: nonrespiratory
 Respiratory failure cause of death: 9% to 16% of patients with ARDS.
 Early deaths (within 72 hours): underlying illness or injury; late deaths sepsis
or multi-organ dysfunction.
Frutos-Vivar F, et al. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004.
Vincent JL, et al. Crit Care Med. 2003.
Ware LB. Crit Care Med. 2005.
ONE-YEAR OUTCOMES IN SURVIVORS OF ARDS
Persistent functional limitation
• Extrapulmonary diseases (primarily):
Muscle wasting and weakness
(corticosteroid-induced & critical-illness-associated myopathy),
• Intrinsic pulmonary morbidity (5%):
Bronchiolitis obliterans, organizing pneumonia
Herridge, M. S., et al. "az-Granados N, Al-Saidi F, Cooper AB, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, Barr A, Cook D, Slutsky AS: One-year outcomes in
survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome." N Engl J Med 348.8 (2003): 683-693
.
LONG TERM OUTCOMES
• Outcomes variable
• Lung mechanics may return to normal 1 year
– gas exchange abnormalities may persist
• Spirometry normal at 6 months
• Mild to moderate: Quality of Life
• 78% patients return to work
McHugh LG, et al. Recovery of function in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:90.
Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:683
REFERENCE
• American-European Consensus Conference (AECC). 1994
• LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
• Murray JF, et al. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:720
• The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:818.
• Civetta: Critical Care,4th edition Chapter 136: Acute Lung Injury & Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Ware, Lorraine B. "Prognostic determinants of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: impact on clinical trial
design." Critical care medicine 33.3 (2005): S217-S222.
• Gomez AC: Pulmonary insufficiency in non-thoracic trauma [discussion]. J Trauma. 1968;8:666
• Tagliabue M, Casella TC, Zincone GE, Fumagalli R, Salvini E. CT and chest radiography in the evaluation of adult
respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Radiol. May 1994;35(3):230-4
• Ferguson, Niall D., et al. "Acute respiratory distress syndrome: underrecognition by clinicians and diagnostic accuracy of
three clinical definitions." Critical care medicine 33.10 (2005): 2228-2234.
• Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ open respiratory
research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
• Fan, Eddy, et al. "An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical
Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress
syndrome." American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 195.9 (2017): 1253-1263.
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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.pptx

  • 1. A CUTE RES PIRATORY DI STRESS S YNDROME
  • 2. DEFINITION American-European Consensus Conference (1994) • Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) The acute onset of respiratory failure Bilateral infiltrates on chest radiograph Hypoxemia as defined by a PaO2/FiO2 ratio ≤200 mmHg No evidence of left atrial hypertension or pulmonary capillary pressure <18 mmHg (if measured) to rule out cardiogenic edema • Acute Lung Injury (ALI) Different from ARDS only for the degree of hypoxemia, it was defined by a PaO2/FiO2 ≤300 mmHg. American-European Consensus Conference (AECC). 1994
  • 3. ALI V.S. ARDS LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
  • 4. LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
  • 5. THE BERLIN DEFINITION OF ARDS LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018. Sehgal IS, Agarwal R, Dhooria S, Prasad KT, Muthu V, Aggarwal AN. Risk stratification of acute respiratory distress syndrome using a PAO2: FIO2 threshold of 150 mmhg: A retrospective analysis from an indian intensive care unit. Lung India. 2020;37(6):473.
  • 6. PHYSIOLOGY • The normal lung is structured to facilitate carbon dioxide excretion and oxygen transfer across the distal alveolar–capillary unit • In healthy tissue, a careful balance of forces governs the exchange of fluid and protein between the plasma in the capillary, the surrounding interstitium, and the draining lymphatics • Capillary wall of the pulmonary bed is not a homogenous single layer of endothelial cells; It is lined with glycocalyx on the luminal surface • Glycocalyx forms “hairy tufts’ into the lumen, which allow it to serve as a molecular sieve to plasma proteins LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
  • 7. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY In ARDS, these system are thrown out of balance  the functions of the glycocalyx are disrupted: - Dysfunctional NO signaling - Increased protein and fluid permeability - Increased coagulation - Inflammation and augmented leukocyte adhesion This disruption can be caused by: • pathogens and their toxins • barrier-destabilizing factors generated by alveolar macrophages • circulating leukocytes and platelets • proinflammatory signalling molecules such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), the inflammasome product IL-1β, angiopoietin 2, vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-activating factor and others LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. 8th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
  • 8. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY • Activation TLR on ATII cells and resident macrophages  chemokines secretion  recruit immune cells to airspaces • Neutrophils release inflammatory mediators  degrading integrity of capillary endothelial cells  increase capillary permeability  influx of oedematous fluid  interstitial edema  hypoxemia and hypercapnia  impair vectorial sodium transport  reducing alveolar oedema clearance Civetta: Critical Care,4th edition Chapter 136: Acute Lung Injury & Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
  • 9. CLINICAL PROGRESSION • Phase 1: Acute Injury • Normal physical examination and chest radiograph • Tachycardia, tachypnea, and respiratory alkalosis develop • Phase 2: Latent Period • Lasts ~ 6–48 h after injury: remains clinical stable • Hyperventilation & hypocapnia persist; mild increase work breathing • Minor abnormalities on physical examination and chest radiograph Gomez AC: Pulmonary insufficiency in non-thoracic trauma [discussion]. J Trauma. 1968;8:666 • Phase 3: Acute Respiratory Failure • Decreased lung compliance: marked tachypnea & dyspnea • Diffuse infiltrates on chest radiograph • High-pitched crackles heard throughout all lung fields • Phase 4: Severe Abnormalities • Severe hypoxemia unresponsive to therapy • Metabolic and respiratory acidosis • lethargy, obtunded
  • 10. RADIOGRAPHY Tagliabue M, Casella TC, Zincone GE, Fumagalli R, Salvini E. CT and chest radiography in the evaluation of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Radiol. May 1994;35(3):230-4
  • 11. PREDICTING ARDS • There is neither strong evidence nor consensus regarding whether or how patients should be screened for ARDS • Clinical scores have been developed to predict ARDS in at-risk patients, most prominently the Lung Injury Prediction Score (LIPS) and Early Acute Lung Injury (EALI) score Bauman ZM, Gassner MY, Coughlin MA, Mahan M, Watras J. Lung injury prediction score is useful in predicting acute respiratory distress syndrome and mortality in surgical critical care patients. Critical Care Research and Practice. 2015;2015
  • 12. CLINICAL RISK FACTORS PREDICTIVE OF POOR OUTCOMES • Independent predictors repeatedly: higher mortality rates – Severity of the illness – Non-pulmonary organ dysfunction – Comorbid diseases, Sepsis, Liver dysfunction/cirrhosis – Advanced age • Other independent risk factors: – Organ transplantation – HIV infection and Immunosuppression – Active malignancy – Mechanisms of lung injury – Barotrauma – Fio2 (High) Geiser, Thomas, et al. "Interleukin-1β augments in vitro alveolar epithelial repair." American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 279.6 (2000): L1184-L1190 Ware, Lorraine B. "Prognostic determinants of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: impact on clinical trial design." Critical care medicine 33.3 (2005): S217-S222. Ferguson, Niall D., et al. "Acute respiratory distress syndrome: underrecognition by clinicians and diagnostic accuracy of three clinical definitions." Critical care medicine 33.10 (2005): 2228-2234.
  • 13. MANAGEMENT • The main principle in ARDS management is to provide the patient adequate pulmonary support and also to arrest and prevent further insult to other organ systems while correcting the underlying causes and drivers of the ARDS • Only a minority of ARDS patients die from respiratory failure alone whereas a majority die from their primary illness or from secondary complications such as sepsis and multisystem organ failure • What does improve outcomes of ARDS patients is the early application and adherence to a strategy of low tidal volume ventilation (LTVV) which is also known as lung protective ventilation (LPV).
  • 14. MANAGEMENT Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
  • 15. MANAGEMENT OF ARDS IN PRACTICE Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
  • 16. CONT’D Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420.
  • 17. ATS/ ESICM/ SCCM GUIDELINES: MECHANICAL VENTILATION IN ADULT PATIENTS WITH ARDS • Limit tidal volumes (4–8 ml/kg PBW) and inspiratory pressures (plateau pressure,30 cm H2O) • Receive prone positioning for more than 12 hours per day • HFOV not be used routinely in patients with moderate or severe ARDS • Adult patients with moderate or severe ARDS receive higher rather than lower levels of PEEP • Adult patients with ARDS receive Recruitement Manuvers Fan, Eddy, et al. "An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome." American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 195.9 (2017): 1253-1263.
  • 18. MAJOR HARMFUL PULMONARY EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE VENTILATOR LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018.
  • 19. MORTALITY  ARDS mortality rates - 31% to 74%  30-58% 1990s – Variability: difference populations studied & definitions used. – Age & etiology of lung injury  Main causes of death: nonrespiratory  Respiratory failure cause of death: 9% to 16% of patients with ARDS.  Early deaths (within 72 hours): underlying illness or injury; late deaths sepsis or multi-organ dysfunction. Frutos-Vivar F, et al. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004. Vincent JL, et al. Crit Care Med. 2003. Ware LB. Crit Care Med. 2005.
  • 20. ONE-YEAR OUTCOMES IN SURVIVORS OF ARDS Persistent functional limitation • Extrapulmonary diseases (primarily): Muscle wasting and weakness (corticosteroid-induced & critical-illness-associated myopathy), • Intrinsic pulmonary morbidity (5%): Bronchiolitis obliterans, organizing pneumonia Herridge, M. S., et al. "az-Granados N, Al-Saidi F, Cooper AB, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, Barr A, Cook D, Slutsky AS: One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome." N Engl J Med 348.8 (2003): 683-693 .
  • 21. LONG TERM OUTCOMES • Outcomes variable • Lung mechanics may return to normal 1 year – gas exchange abnormalities may persist • Spirometry normal at 6 months • Mild to moderate: Quality of Life • 78% patients return to work McHugh LG, et al. Recovery of function in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:90. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:683
  • 22. REFERENCE • American-European Consensus Conference (AECC). 1994 • LoCicero, Joseph. Shields' General Thoracic Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2018. • Murray JF, et al. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:720 • The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:818. • Civetta: Critical Care,4th edition Chapter 136: Acute Lung Injury & Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome • Ware, Lorraine B. "Prognostic determinants of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: impact on clinical trial design." Critical care medicine 33.3 (2005): S217-S222. • Gomez AC: Pulmonary insufficiency in non-thoracic trauma [discussion]. J Trauma. 1968;8:666 • Tagliabue M, Casella TC, Zincone GE, Fumagalli R, Salvini E. CT and chest radiography in the evaluation of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Radiol. May 1994;35(3):230-4 • Ferguson, Niall D., et al. "Acute respiratory distress syndrome: underrecognition by clinicians and diagnostic accuracy of three clinical definitions." Critical care medicine 33.10 (2005): 2228-2234. • Griffiths, Mark JD, et al. "Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome." BMJ open respiratory research 6.1 (2019): e000420. • Fan, Eddy, et al. "An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome." American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 195.9 (2017): 1253-1263.

Editor's Notes

  1. Definisi ARDS pertama yang dipublikasi oleh AECC 1994 Menurut AECC 1994 ARDS di definisikan sebagai kondisi gagal nafas akut Dengan gambaran xray infiltrate pada kedua paru Hipoxemia dengan rasio Pa02/FiO2 kurang dari sama dengan 200 Dan tidak ada tanda hipertensi atrium kiri atau PAC jika terpasang dengan tekanan <18mmHg untuk menyingkirkan edema akibat kardiogenik Pada AECC 1994 juga mendefinisikan ALI, merupakan bentuk dari ARDS yang lebih ringan dengan rasio PaO2/FiO2 kurang dari sama dengan 300mmHg
  2. Jadi definisi ALI dan ARDS menurut AECC ni hanya perbedaan dari rasio PaO2 dan FiO2 nya saja Jika ALI dengan rasio kurang dari 300, sedangkan ARDS rasio nya kurang dari 200 PAOP merupakan estimasi tekanan pengisian ventrikel kiri
  3. Definisi dari AECC ini walaupun sudah diterima secara luas oleh klinisi pada jamannya, namun masih memiliki beberapa limitasi Onset gagal nafas yang akut, hal ini tidak menjelaskan timeframe nya (apakah jam, hari atau minggu) Hipoksemia yang dinilai dari rasio PaO2 dan FiO2 ini dapat bervariasi tergantung FiO2 dan PEEP. Karena pada 2 pasien berbeda yang memiliki FiO2 sama namun PEEP berbeda akan memiliki PaO2 yang berbeda pula Kriteria rontgen dada tergantung dari pengalaman klinisi yang membaca xray nya Pasien dengan ARDS sering ditemui dengan peningkatan PAWP dikarenankan peningkatan tekanan pleura atau karena pemberian resusitasi cairan yang banyak PAOP/PAWP Pulmonary Artery Wedge Pressure merupakan estimasi tekanan pengisian ventrikel kiri
  4. Oleh karena itu definisi AECC ini mereview kembali dan menghasilkan Definisi Berlin yang lebih fisibel dan reliabel serta valid Definisi Berlin ini mengadopsi dari definisi AECC Timing adalah akut, di AECC tidak dijelaskan batas waktu akut, namun di Berlin batas nya adalah dalam 7 hari, karena data sebelumnya menunjukkan faktor risiko pasien ARDS teridentifikasi setidaknya 72 jam pertama hingga hari ke7 Imaging paru menunjukkan adanya opasitas bilateral dengan edema pulmonal yang bukan merupakan efusi, atelectasis, nodul/massa Penggunaan PAC yang menurun, kriteria PAWP dihilangkan dan digantikan sesuai penilaian dokter jika ditemukan adanya gagal nafas yang bukan dikarenakan gagal jantung atau overload cairan. Jika tidak diketahui etiologi dari ARDS nya, maka perlu dilakukan pemeriksaan echo untuk menyingkitkan edema hidrostatik akibat gagal jantung Karena PEEP dapat mengganggu reliabilitas dan spesifisitas dari P/F ratio, maka definisi nya ditambahkan. Terdapat 3 kriteria (mild moderate dan severe) Kriteria ALI dihilangkan, karena kebanyakan dokter melihat ALI ini bukan sebagai bagian dari ARDS, namun suatu penyakit yang berbeda Mengapa dibagi menjadi mild moderate dan severe? Pada Definisi ARDS menurut Berlin, pembagian tersebut berdasarkan rekomendasi dari panel yang sudah ahli dibidangnya dengan menggunakan kriteria face validity dan untuk mempertahankan definisi sebelumnya. Selain itu stratifikasi ards juga menunjukkan outcome yang berbeda beda Semakins severe maka, ada paru yang lebih dapat direkrut, lebih tinggi inhomogenitas, pplat lebih tinggi dan proporsi dead space untuk ventilasi lebih tinggi
  5. Paru yang normal memfasilitasi pertukaran oksigen dan karbon dioksida melintasi alveolus dan kapiler Pada jaringan yang sehat, terdapat keseimbangan dari berbagai faktor yang mempengaruhi pertukaran cairan dan protein antara kapiler, interstitium yang mengelilinya dan jaringan limfatik yang berfungsi sebagai drainage. Interstitium terdiri dari 3 bagian Dinding kapiler paru diketahuin bukan berupa satu lapisan yang homogen, dimana terdapat lapisan glycocalyx yang berada di atasnya menghadap permukaan luminal Glycocalyx ini merupakan komponen gel yang terdiri dari glycosaminoglycan dan glycoprotein lainnya seperti sialic acid yang dapat berfungsi sebagai penyaring protein plasma agar tidak secara bebas keluar dari kapiler ke interstitium
  6. Intinya adalah adanya peningkatan permeabilitas vascular menyebabkan protein dan molekul keluar ke ruangan intersisiel karena kerusakan endotel
  7. acid, viruses, ventilator- associated lung injury, hyperoxia or bacteria) can injure the epithelium, either directly or by inducing inflammation, which in turn injures the epithelium Hypoxemia menyebabkan membutuhkan ventilator Hypercapnia karena ada penurunan kemampuan ekskresi CO2, yang meningkatkan pulmonary dead space
  8. Secara klinis, terdapat 4 fase progress dari ARDS Fase 1, kondisi akut, ditemukan adanya takikardi, takipnea, alkalosis. Sedangkan pemeriksaan fisik dan radiologi masih normal Fase 2, 6-48 jam setelah injury, secara klnis masih stabil namun didapatkan hiperventilasi hipokapni, dan peningkatan WOB, ada perubahan radiografi Fase 3, Acure Respiratory failure, terjadi penurunan komplians paru yang ditandai dengan takipnea dan dispnea, didapatkan suara ronki seluruh lapang paru, infiltrate difus pada xray, Fase 4, Kelainan berat, didapatkan pasien kondisi letargi, metabolic dan respiratory asidosis, dan kondisi hipoksemia berat yang tidak respon terhadap terapi kulit mungkin tampak lembab dan sianosis. Otot-otot pernapasan interkostal dan aksesori menjadi aktif terlibat dalam mendukung ventilasi. Peningkatan kerja pernapasan yang dramatis dapat dilihat sekilas dari samping tempat tidur. Terdengar ronki akhir ekspirasi bernada tinggi di seluruh lapang paru. Peningkatan agitasi, kelesuan, dan obtundasi dapat terjadi. menjadi jelas lama setelah hipoksemia berkembang, perhatian terhadap analisis gas darah diperlukan pada pasien yang berisiko ARDS.
  9. radiografi dada di ARDS merupakan karakteristik dari ARDS tetapi tidak spesifik. Didapatkan gambaran opasitas pada kedua lapang paru yang diakibatkan oleh infiltrate intersisial. Harus dibedakan dengan edema paru kardiogenik, umumnya tidak ditemukan adanya efusi pleura ataupun kardiomegali. Menurut definisi Berlin, adanya opasitas yang bukan disebabkan oleh atelectasis, efusi pelura, ataupun nodul. Serta bukan disebabkan karena retensi cairan (edema) yang berhubungan dengan penyakit gagal jantung CT Scan dapat diperiksa namun kurang praktis secara praktik Pada CT Scan akan tampak volume paru yang berkurang secara dramatis menunjukkan distribusi area kolaps alveolar
  10. LIPS memiliki cut of point lebih ebsar sama dengan 4 EALI lebih simple lagi, berdasarkan radiologi opasitas bilateral saat admisi, dan 3 variable (takipnea, kebutuhan oksigen lebih dari 2L/menit, dan imunosupresi) Baik LIPS dan EALI memiliki nilai NPV yang tinggi dan PPV yang sangat rendah Dan hingga saat ini belum ada cara yang dapat digunakan untuk mencegah )prevensi) terjadinya ARDS Penelitian sebelumnya menilai penggunaan steroid, aspirin ataupun formoterol, namun hasilnya masih belum memuaskan
  11. Faktor risiko dalam memprediksi hasil yang kurang baik
  12. volume tidal yang besar 10-15ml/kg Ventilasi konvensional dapat merusak paru-paru: lower tidal volumes are needed in ARDS to prevent regional overdistension, overdistensi Vt menyebabkan ruptur alveolar dan penipisan Ada penelitian sebelumnya (ARDSnet), In 2000, the results of the ARDSnet (ARMA) trial were published which compared the outcomes of 861 mechanically ventilated ARDS patients randomly assigned to two different initial tidal volumes: a conventional tidal volume goal of 12 mL/kg predicted body weight (PBW) versus an LTVV goals of 6 mL/kg PBW. The tidal volumes were then adjusted to maintain plateau pressures below a certain level (≤50 cm H2O in the conventional group and ≤30 cm H2O in the LTVV group). The study was stopped early due to the demonstration of a lower mortality in the LTVV group compared to the conventional group (31.0% vs. 39.8%, p <0.007). Additionally, the LTVV group had more ventilator-free days (12 vs. 10 days, p <0.007) and were more likely to be breathing off of the ventilator by day 28 (65.7% vs. 55.0%, p <0.001) when compared with the conventional group.62 This observed mortality benefit of LTVV over conventional ventilation has since been strongly supported by additional studies.63,64 PEEP (positive end expiratory pressure) ini dapat mencegah kolaps alveolar di distal saat TV cukup rendah. Namun pada pasien severe ARDS membutuhkan PEEP yang tinggi Dengan memodifikasi distribusi tekanan transpulmonal regional, posisi tengkurap menurunkan heterogenitas regional aerasi paru, yang mengarah pada peningkatan pertukaran gas dan penurunan risiko cedera paru mekanis Posisi tengkurap meningkatkan pertukaran gas dengan memperbaiki perbedaan tekanan transpulmonal ventral-dorsal, mengurangi kompresi paru dorsal, dan meningkatkan perfusi paru ECMO digunakan pada yang telah mengalami hiperkapnea yang tidak terkompensasi
  13. NO: mekanisme aksinya adalah melalui pembentukan siklik guanosin monofosfat (cGMP Obat vasoaktif aerosol, seperti oksida nitrat atau prostaglandin-I, berdifusi dari alveoli yang berventilasi dan mengakibatkan relaksasi otot polos endotel, sehingga meningkatkan pencocokan ventilasi/perfusi sementara pembuluh darah yang berdekatan dengan alveoli yang kolaps tetap tidak terpengaruh. Vasodilatasi selektif di area berventilasi menurunkan fraksi shunt dan berkontribusi pada pengentasan hipertensi pulmonal. didokumentasikan peningkatan tekanan arteri pulmonalis dan oksigenasi dengan NO di ALI/ARDS, tidak ada bukti bahwa kematian secara keseluruhan berkurang. toksisitas ada, termasuk pembentukan radikal bebas, produksi nitrogen dioksida (NO2) (119), dan generasi methemoglobin. melindungi terhadap adhesi neutofil dan cedera oksidan neutrofil, aktivitas bronkodilator Surfaktan: Surfaktan adalah fosfolipid, bahan protein yang diproduksi oleh pneumosit epitel tipe II, disekresikan sepanjang permukaan alveolar dan bertindak untuk menurunkan tegangan permukaan untuk mencegah kolaps alveolar. Protein surfaktan hidrofilik A dan D berkontribusi pada respon imun (126), sedangkan tipe hidrofobik B dan C memfasilitasi pembentukan monolayer dalam alveolus (127). Cedera epitel paru dan disfungsi surfaktan dari cedera langsung atau tidak langsung membuat alveoli tidak stabil, menyebabkan kolaps, campuran vena, hipoksemia, dan penurunan karakteristik komplians paru ARDS. Terapi penggantian surfaktan pada orang dewasa sejauh ini tidak berhasil. Setelah percobaan fase I/II yang menggembirakan dari suplemen surfaktan berbasis protein C surfaktan rekombinan (128), percobaan fase III dari bahan yang sama meningkatkan oksigenasi tanpa menurunkan mortalitas atau jumlah hari penggunaan ventilator pada pasien dewasa dengan ARDS (129). Penyelidikan lebih lanjut dari modalitas yang menjanjikan ini pada orang dewasa diperlukan berdasarkan keberhasilannya yang jelas dalam neonatologi. Ventilasi Cair Transportasi gas paru menggunakan tegangan permukaan rendah yang kompleks, molekul fluorokarbon tekanan uap tinggi dalam keadaan cair telah diselidiki untuk digunakan pada pasien dengan ALI berat. Gas pernapasan dibawa dalam larutan, dan ventilasi cairan sebagian atau penuh dilakukan masing-masing dengan konvensional atau "ventilator cair". Perfluorokarbon memiliki sifat anti-inflamasi dan, berdasarkan keadaan cairnya, terlokalisasi terutama di area dependen di mana kolaps jalan napas paling sering terjadi dan karenanya paling membutuhkan PEEP di paru ARDS (122). Ciri-ciri perfluorokarbon ini cenderung menstabilkan alveoli yang bergantung pada kolaps tanpa risiko tekanan tinggi yang terkait dengan ventilasi konvensional. Hewan telah selamat dari pengenaan ventilasi cair dalam keadaan eksperimental (123). Studi pada manusia dewasa, bagaimanapun, belum mengungkapkan manfaat dari bentuk pengobatan ini, tanpa peningkatan hasil secara keseluruhan
  14. cute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is to promote alveolar recruitment, leading to an increased end-expiratory lung volume and thus decreased ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) High Frequency Oscillatory Ventilation
  15. Toksisitas oksigen  hyperoxia bisa menyebabkan atelektasi dan ROS yg menyebabkan kerusakan dari tracheobronchitis hingga diffuse alveolar damage Barotrauma  ditandai dengan adanya air leaks (pneumotoraks, pneumomediastinum, emfisema yang terjadi karena rupture dari alveolar pressure dan bronchovascular sheath Volutrauma  overdistensi alveolar Atelektrauma  kolaps dan re ekspansi alveoli berulang pada saat nafas ventilator yang menyebabkan pelepasan mediator inflamasi Biotrauma  pelepasan mediator inflamasi dari paru menyebabkan inflamasi dan edema
  16. majority of deaths is related to multisystem organ failure age: five times higher in patients over 60 yo Frutos-Vivar F, et al. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004. Vincent JL, et al. Crit Care Med. 2003. Ware LB. Crit Care Med. 2005.
  17. Outcome jangka panjang ada pasien pasien yang mengalami ARDS
  18. Untuk mendiagnosis ARDS, dapat berpatokan dengan definisi berlin Menurut definisi Berlin, dibagi menjadi ringan, sedang dan berat Tatalaksana pasien ARDS adalah dengan mekanikal ventilator dan prone positioning Cari underlying disease nya atau faktor risiko penyebabnya, lalu ditangani Outcome nya pun bervariasi, tergantung dari faktor risiko dan kondisi pasien ARDS adalah acute lung injury yang difus dengan faktor risiko predisposisi, menyebabkan inflamasi yang meningkatkan permeabilitas vaskulariasasi paru dan hilangnya jaringan paru berisi udara. Khas nya adalah hipoksemua dan opasitas pada kedua lapang paru pada xray atau ct scan yang berhubungan dengan peningkatan aliran vena paru, physiology dead space, dan penurunan komplians paru Secara morfologi didapatkan kondisi edema paru yang akut, inflamasi, membrane hialin dan perdarahan alveolar