1. Measuring Immersion in Video Games
Beating your head Against the Wall or Producing Science?
Name Viktoras Kilijonas
Student ID # 6048561 Always 7 positions, no letter I. Add a zero at the
beginning if only 6 positions.
E-mail address v.kilijonas@student.maastrichtuniversity.nl
Course code ACU3900
Group number 01
Supervisor/tutor Rafael Bienia
Assignment name BA thesis
Assignment # 0 The end work of a course always carries the number 00.
All other assignments are numbered chronologically
starting with 01.
Attempt REGULAR REGULAR or RESIT
Academic year 2014-2015
Date 19-6-2015
Words 9594
Filename 2014-2015-ACU3900-0-REGULAR-6048561.pdf

2. Measuring Immersion in Video Games
Beating Your Head Against the Wall or Producing Science?
I declare that this piece of writing is my own work; all use of other work and thoughts have been
properly referenced.
Supervisor
Rafael Bienia Viktoras Kilijonas
ID 6048561
19-06-2015
Bachelor Thesis
Number of Words: 9594

3. Table of Contents
Abstract…….1
Introduction…….2
Methodology…….4
1 Three Researches from Psychology Journals…….6
1.1. First Research…….6
1.2. Second Research…….9
1.3. Third Research…….13
2. Alternatives…….16
3. Discussion…….20
Conclusion.......22
Bibliography……..24

4. 1
Abstract
Various researches investigate relationship between games and their effect on violent
behavior. In these researches immersion is recognized as an important variable. The most
common tool to measure immersion is a questionnaire. In this thesis I look at how immersion
is conceptualized in three cases from psychology journals. Additionally, I elaborate on the
questionnaires used to measure immersion in those researchers. I also talk about alternative
ways to conceptualize immersion as well as physiological and technical factors that are
relevant when providing measurement for this concept. Finally, I discuss how strife for
objectivity in researches on games is pervaded with epistemological problems.
Keywords: Presence Questionnaire – Immersion – Presence – Flow – Games – Aggression –
Virtual Environment

5. 2
Introduction
Today computer video games constitute an inseparable part of media culture. Video game
industry is scarcely a small one considering the amount of finances that are being deployed
by large game developer studios to create most popular video games. Apart from that even
regular people become increasingly dependent on games and gaming. Services like twitch.tv
allows gamers to earn money and sustain their living from things they enjoy the most -
games. Therefore, it is obvious that games and gaming in general are no longer just a niche
activities enjoyed by a small group of people; it is reported that gaming industry rivals even
the movie and recording industries in the United States based on sales in recent years (Qin,
Rau & Salvendy, 2009, p.107). However, to fully reflect on the importance of gaming on
culture one also has to take into account various controversies that pervade it. Especially
considering that the audiences of gamers have grown immensely, one would assume that
effects of games on people would be much more far reaching. That being said, one particular
controversy concerns hypothesis that video games, and especially violent video games, have
a negative influence over individual behavior in real life. This hypothesis is perpetuated by
various research groups that seek to investigate whether there is actually a relationship
between video games and violence in real life (Bushman, Konijn & Bijvank, 2007; Barlett,
Rodeheffer, Baldassaro, Hinkin & Harris, 2008; Przybylski, Weinstein, Murayama, Lynch &
Ryan, 2012). That being said, there is still no general consensus on whether games have a
negative effect on people: one group of researchers claim that video games actually result in
violent behavior in real life, while others seem to suggest the opposite – there is no such
relationship between games and real life whatsoever.
In this thesis I want to take a more focused look on the research that is being
done on the subject. Video games unlike any other form of media, for example film, are
defined by highly immersive character (Jennett et al., 2008; Qin, Rau & Salvendy, 2009). In
fact, in majority of games the player, an individual who plays the game, is situated to be a
protagonist or a central figure around which most of the action in the game revolves. In other
words, the individual who plays the game is a sole active determinant without which a game
would just remain stale. Hence the immersive character of games - without immersion an
individual would not be able to successfully indentify with his virtual identity in the game
and, therefore, would not be able to comprehend game‟s mechanics, which would lead to
unpleasant or unfulfilling experience.

6. 3
That being said, for this thesis I have selected three researches from psychology
journals in which immersion is recognized as one of the key elements that has to be taken
into account when investigating relationship between games and violence in real life. In each
of the three cases a specific measurement tool is employed that is supposed to indicate how
immersive for the player the game was. To be more specific the measurement tool that is
used in each instance is a questionnaire/scale. Nevertheless, when dealing with such an
elusive concept as immersion it is quite hard to pin point objective factors which would be
directly related to it. This becomes particularly tricky when one tries to measure immersion –
what is it that these scientists are measuring considering arbitrary makeup of their
conceptualization of immersion. For that matter my goal in this thesis will be to investigate
these tools: is there a conceptual difference between scientists‟ definition of immersion and
definition of immersion that is used in the questionnaire; what do these questionnaires are
actually measuring; can such measurement count as really objective and therefore should be
considered scientifically valuable.
With that in mind this thesis also pertains to a broader field of research that is
concerned with investigating creation of scientific facts. In Latour‟s view scientific facts are
not necessarily something which is objective and therefore has to be discovered, but on the
contrary - these facts are often created by scientists themselves (Latour & Woolgar, 1979). In
my thesis I also follow this idea. However, I have to say that there is a slight difference of
emphasis in my thesis and work of Latour. In my case I take a more narrow approach
focusing instead only on one aspect of laboratory work, which is tools used to measure
immersion. Whereas in Latour‟s case we find a much more all-encompassing perspective that
takes into account a variety of other pertinent social factors. Additionally, a paper by Ruth
Benschop and Douwe Draaisma, which is called In Pursuit of Precision: The Calibration of
Minds and Machines in Late Nineteenth-century Psychology (2000) comes from the similar
academic context. In my case as well as in Benschop and Draaisma‟s we elaborate on
epistemological tools used in psychological experiments. Therefore, as much as this thesis is
about immersion and tools that measure this phenomenon, it is also about clarification of
epistemological and normative assumptions that play a part in acquiring scientific knowledge
of human behavior. In other words, these three researches that I am investigating all seek out
to uncover the scientific explanation for the relationship between games and violent human
behavior. However, epistemological problems begin to surface when these researches employ
their measurement tools to measure such thing as immersion. That is, considering that

7. 4
immersion is one of the key elements in these three researches, we can argue that the findings
of each research would necessarily depend on how immersion was measured. Therefore, the
hypothesis that games cause people to act violently in real life could be either true or false,
depending on how immersion was measured. Thus while on the surface I focus on immersion
and tools that are used by scientists to measure it, I equally pay attention to the general idea
of creation of scientific facts and epistemological problems stemming from this process.
Which leads me to my research question: how do tools used for measurement of immersion
in researches that investigate relationship between games and violent behavior in real life
from three cases in psychology journals shed light on epistemological problems related to
construction of scientific facts?
Methodology
Having generally introduced you to the topic of my thesis in previous section I will now turn
to section in which I speak about methodology. Let me start by briefly mentioning the
sources that I will be using. As for primary sources I have already indicated that I am using
three cases from psychology journals, which investigate the effects that games have on
individual behavior. I have selected these particular three sources because each of them relies
on similar methodological tool to assess individual‟s immersion in game, which is a scale or a
questionnaire. This allows me to investigate this form of measurement tool without the need
to rely on other factors such as researchers that were present in laboratories when these
experiments were conducted. By narrowing down research context I simply have to analyze
conceptual underpinnings of such tool and this, I believe, gives me focus in my thesis. That
is, by centering my analysis on this questionnaire/scale that scientists are using to measure
immersion I can provide a more thorough explanation of epistemological problems that
pertain to such measurement tool. Additionally, these three cases form a tight core that is
representative of broader spectrum of studies in which immersion is measured similarly. Of
course I am aware of alternative trends of research and probable other methods to measure
immersion. In fact I will have to mention these alternative accounts to demonstrate that,
indeed, there are various ways to think of and, therefore, measure immersion. Therefore, for
secondary sources I will rely on alternative accounts that detail the importance of immersion
in gaming. This is necessary to stress the point that in games immersion is one of the crucial
factors to the whole experience of the user. Of course secondary sources will also allow me to
provide a more thorough reflection on primary sources.

8. 5
To analyze my material I am relying on method of conceptual analysis. To be
more specific I structure my approach around three questions, which will guide my analysis
of source material. The three questions that I am speaking of were derived from an annex in
the course book of Network Society course in Maastricht University. The three questions,
which frame conceptual analysis, are as follows:
1. Is this a concept? To what extent is the meaning of this notion itself discussed in this
text?
2. What does this concept mean? Gather information about author, information medium,
and (semantic) meaning of the concept.
3. Why does the author use this concept? Explore which kind of intervention the author
aims for by using the concept: elucidating, opposing, or persuading?
It is obvious that for the most part I will be applying these three questions on the concept of
immersion. This is imperative considering that three cases from psychology journals rely on
quite noticeably distinct variations in use of the latter concept, which, of course, leads to a
rather different make up of a questionnaire for measurement of immersion.
Speaking about the structure of my argument it will be divided into three
argumentative stages. In the first stage I mainly concern myself with descriptions of
conceptualization of the term immersion in three cases from psychology journals. I am using
those three previously mentioned questions to guide my conceptual analysis. This will allow
me to provide an elaborate overview of the conceptual background for the immersion in these
three cases. Additionally, I will touch upon definition of immersion or presence that is found
in questionnaires. I will do my best to explain how these tools are supposed to explicate on
that conceptualization. In the second stage I move on to the alternatives, namely, I refer to
secondary sources to show alternative accounts on how immersion can be thought of. Upon
doing so I should be able to demonstrate that there are also alternative ways to measure
immersion as well as various relevant factors that can be taken into account when trying to
provide such measurement. In the third part of my argument I will reflect on my findings
from previous two parts. This type of comparison/analysis is necessary to bring
epistemological problems related to measurement tools for immersion from three cases in
psychology journals to the surface. After all, possible discrepancies between studies would
only further prove that researchers investigating relationship between games and violent
behavior have to be aware of divergent conceptual make up, which informs questionnaires
used to measure such thing as immersion. In the end I finish with conclusion

9. 6
Three Researches from Psychology Journals
First Research
Without any further ado let me start with two lab experiments. These two experiments were
represented in the paper by the name The Effect of Advances in Video Game Technology and
Content on Aggressive Cognitions, Hostility, and Heart Rate (2008). More generally though,
two experiments sought to test “the moderating role of video game graphics quality in the
relationship between video game content and aggression-related variables” (Barlett,
Rodeheffer, Baldassaro, Hinkin & Harris, 2008 p.540). The two studies were designed in
such a way that in each experiment there were two groups of people playing two different
types of games – violent and non violent. However, I should note that in the context of this
thesis I will be focusing only on the second experiment as only in it the immersion was
measured. Before I jump to conceptual analysis I would like to quickly take note of the
outcome/result of this study that I am about to analyze: it is a necessary step because in the
end this thesis is about creation of scientific facts. Therefore, to fully grasp how these facts
are created I have to take into account not only the use of concepts, but also investigate how
such use of these concepts shapes the outcome of each study. For that matter, the study found
out that violent video game play is related to aggressive cognitions and hostility (Barlett et
al., 2008, p.559). Surprisingly, another finding of this study was that immersion did not
overshadowed violent content in games. In other words, or as the authors themselves have
stated, “those who claim that violence in video games does not „„affect them‟‟ because they
are not submerged in such games, may be coming to the wrong conclusions” (Barlett et al.,
2008, p.562). This is particularly interesting since it appears that there are no obstacles in
experiencing violent content in games. As in, it does not matter how involved with the game
you are, as long as there is violence in games you are bound to experience it. With that in
mind let me now turn to conceptualization of immersion in this study.
To begin with let me start with the first question from my conceptual analysis
tool. Without a doubt immersion is definitely recognized as a relevant concept in this study.
Right from the start, in the abstract, authors of this study regard immersion as somewhat
important: it is said that immersion is a relevant factor, which has potential to influence
relationship between game content and aggression-related variables. Other than that, there is
even a separate section in the paper that is dedicated to immersion. In the section titled „Role

10. 7
of Immersion‟ authors refer to other studies in which immersion was recognized as relevant
variable in research concerning games and violence. Additionally, an explanation is provided
for the meaning of immersion. That being said, the provided explanation, although clear and
simple, is not too lengthy. Rather whole section on immersion is here to stress the point of
relevance of this concept by reference to other studies, where it also was deemed important.
For the second part of my analysis I will look at the meaning of the concept in
this study. In the section „Role of Immersion‟ we find that “immersion (or presence) is
defined as the extent to which one feels as though they are „„in‟‟ the video game” (Barlett et
al., 2008, p.544). It is important to note that immersion here is compared with presence. I will
come back to definitional differences between these two terms in more detail in the third
argumentative stage of my thesis. For now it is sufficient to say that authors from latter study
use the term immersion and presence interchangeably because their definition comes from
other academic literature. This particular definition is taken from work by Schneider, Lang,
Shin and Bradley, How Story Impacts Emotional, Motivational, and Physiological Responses
to First-Person Shooter Video Games (2004). Schneider, Lang, Shin and Bradley work is also
based on studies on games and various pertinent aspects that have to do with human
psychology and physiology. In this paper Schneider et al. “investigates how game playing
experience changes when a story is added to a first-person shooter game” (Schneider, Lang,
Shin & Bradley, 2004, p.361). Of course presence (or immersion) is recognized as one of
dependant variables. Moving on to the definition, we find that, indeed, Schneider et al. state
that “[t]his feeling of being there has been called the sense of presence” (Schneider et al.,
2004, p.365). In this definition the important bit is the part, which says that presence is a
feeling of “being there”. If we look at the sources, which were used by Schneider et al. to
come up with this definition of presence, we stumble upon another academic article by
Matthew Lombard and Theresa Ditton, which deals exclusively with the concept of presence.
In article by Lombard and Ditton we find various conceptualizations of presence.
Nonetheless, the one that concerns the “the feeling of being there” is associated with an idea
of transportation. It is stated that this definition is perhaps the oldest version of presence and
its use can be recognized in oral tradition of early humans, literature as well as television and
virtual reality (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). To give an example, when one reads a book he or
she can become so involved with the fictional world that he/she starts feeling as if he/she is
being transported into that fictitious space, leading to suspension of disbelief. Therefore, if

11. 8
transportation to that fictitious space is successful, one experiences presence - a feeling of
being there.
Getting back to Barlett et al. it is now more or less clear where they got their
definition of immersion/presence from; essentially their definition pertains to the idea of
transportation, which evokes a feeling of being there. Curiously enough, in the article by
Lombard and Ditton we also find another section on presence, which is called „Presence as
immersion‟. Considering that Barlett et al. use the terms presence and immersion
interchangeably it is interesting that in the end they opted for a definition, which in its
essence is quite different from the one in which presence is actually equated with immersion.
I will get back to these conceptual differences and their implications in the third
argumentative stage of this thesis.
Finally, the third step of conceptual analysis has to do with explaining how the
author uses the concept. In other words, for what purpose the concept of immersion - and in
this particular case presence – is used by Barlett et al. In section „Role of Immersion‟ Barlett
et al. state that “[t]heoretically, immersion could be an important moderator or mediator in
the relationship between video game content and aggression-related variables” (Barlett et al.,
2008, p.544). Phrased differently, authors want to suggest that immersion could potentially
increase the extent to which gamers relate to what is happening in the game world, which
also could have an impact on perception of violent content in games. Barlett et al.
hypothesize that “if a violent video game player feels as though they are part of the game,
then they may experience more of an intense emotional and physiological arousal response”
(Barlett et al., 2008, p.544). Therefore, judging from what has been said so far it can be stated
that in this instance Barlett et al. use the concept of immersion/presence to persuade. That is,
immersion/presence here is seen as a relevant factor that has influence over such
phenomenon as emotional and physiological arousal. In a sense the authors aim to expand the
meaning of immersion/presence by hypothesizing about potential effects it may have in
regards to a video game content and aggression-related variables – it is no longer merely
about transportation, but also about the implications that derive from it.
Having dealt with the conceptualization of immersion in study by Barlett et al.
let me now turn to a tool used by these researchers to measure immersion. Essentially, Barlett
et al. rely on a questionnaire developed by Bob G. Witmer and Michael J. Singer. A Presence
questionnaire, as it is titled by Witmer and Singer, follows conceptual dimensions of Barlett
et al. definition of immersion. In other words, in both cases, with Witmer and Singer and

12. 9
Barlett et al., presence or immersion is described as a feeling of being there – the emphasis in
both cases lies on transportation. However, Witmer and Singer stress that there are certain
issues with such definition of the concept of immersion or presence. To be more specific,
“this definition provides a common understanding of the concept, but it does not identify the
factors influencing presence, nor does it describe the exact nature of the experience” (Witmer
& Singer, 1998, p.225). By trying to give some objective weight to the concept of presence
Witmer & Singer indentify several factors that are influential to it. These factors are divided
into four groups: control factors, sensory factors, distraction factors and realism factors.
Witmer & Singer‟s questionnaire is devised in such a way that each question provides
information about influence of each factor to an experience of presence. For example, one of
the questions describing influence of sensory factors is “how compelling was your sense of
moving around inside the virtual environment??” (Witmer & Singer, 1998, p.232). To answer
that question respondent would have to put an “X” mark on a seven-point scale. The scale
contains three anchors, which describe the contents of the questions. Upon answering the
question in such a way a respondent provides researcher with information over how
influential a certain factor was. In the end, the researcher can get a quite clear indication to
what extent presence was experienced as well as which factors were influential the most. This
way presence and immersion become quantifiable.
Second Research
The second study which I am going to talk about was carried out by Przybylski, Weinstein,
Murayama, Lynch and Ryan. In a research article titled The ideal Self at Play: the Appeal of
Video Games That Let You Be All You Can Be (2012) the authors report on their research in
which they “explored the idea that the appeal of games is due in part to their ability to
provide players with novel experiences that let them “try on” ideal aspects of their selves that
might not find expression in everyday life” (Przybylski, Weinstein, Murayama, Lynch &
Ryan, 2012, p.69). Again, before jumping to conceptual analysis of immersion within this
study I want to briefly take note of results. Przybylski et al. indicate that they proved that
playing games was particularly motivating for those, who could experience their ideal-self
characteristics while gaming. Their second hypothesis was also confirmed: “results indicated
that the games most intrinsically motivating to players who felt a wide distance between who
they were and who they would like to be were games that fostered game-self–ideal-self
convergence” (Przybylski et al., 2012, p.74). And perhaps most relevant finding in terms of
context of this thesis was that immersion in virtual environments is a key to identification

13. 10
(Przybylski et al., 2012, p.74). In other words, it means that if a person is highly immersed in
the game environment he or she is more likely to identify with his ideal-self in the game
world via game‟s player avatar.
With that in mind, I now turn conceptual analysis of immersion within this
study. Firstly, it is quite evident that Przybylski et al. recognize the conceptual nature of
immersion. The reference to other studies regarding the meaning of this concept only further
proves this point. In particular authors of this study refer to work by Lombard and Ditton
(1997) and Weinstein, Przybylski and Ryan (2009) to inform their own conceptualization of
immersion. Additionally, the concept of immersion is also closely related to one of the main
hypothesis of their research.
The meaning for immersion is also provided. Przybylski et al. with reference to
other research on this subject state that immersion is an “illusion of nonmediation between
the experience of video-game players and the virtual environment” and therefore is “an
elemental aspect of game play and magnifies the effects of experiences in virtual contexts on
behavior in the real world” (Przybylski et al., 2012, p.70). Considering how Przybylski et al.
reference their definition, one could say that their conceptualization is made up of two
important parts. The first part of their definition focuses on the point that immersion can be
seen as illusion of nonmediation. Originally this point about nonmediation as definitive
feature of immersive experience is found in Lombard and Ditton‟s explication on the concept
of presence. Two things are important in Lombard and Ditton‟s explication. First of all, when
Lombard and Ditton say that presence is the perceptual illusion of nonmediation by
perceptual they mean that presence provokes real time responses of the human sensory,
cognitive and affective processing systems (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). This provocation of
responses has to be understood in relation to objects in person‟s environment. For example,
if one is playing a video game, he or she perceives game world as a specific type of
environment. This perception of the game world as a distinct type of environment is precisely
what provokes responses of human sensory, cognitive and affective processing systems.
Secondly, when explaining what is illusion of nonmediation Lombard and Ditton point to the
fact that it occurs as a failure on person‟s part to acknowledge the existence of a medium
(Lombard & Ditton, 1997). As a result of such failure a person interacts with his/her
environment with a belief that there‟s no medium in between him/her and the environment.
Further on, Lombard and Ditton argue that illusion of nonmediation can occur
in two distinct ways. One of them is when the medium itself is transparent. In other words,

14. 11
the medium functions as “a large open window, with the medium user and the medium
content (objects and entities) sharing the same physical environment” (Lombard & Ditton,
1997). The second way that leads to illusion of nonmediation concerns the fact that medium
can appear to be transformed into something completely different. For example a social entity
might be something into which a medium is transformed and that leads to the illusion of
nonmediation (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). That being said, there are certain aspects that
define the occurrence of presence. According to Lombard and Ditton a medium is a necessity
for occurrence of presence. Another thing is that a presence does not develop gradually and
either occurs or does not during the use of media. And finally, the subjective evaluation of
presence is dependent on the amount of instances during mediated experience when an
illusion of nonmediation happened. Regarding that last point, it means that if there are more
instances when illusion of nonmediation happens then it is more likely that the user will
experience presence.
The second part that is important to Przybylski et al. conceptualization of
immersion concerns the idea that immersion magnifies the effects of experiences in virtual
contexts on behavior in the real world. Initially, this idea was explored in the study by
Weinstein, Przybylski and Ryan (2009). Although the main point of Weinstein, Przybylski
and Ryan study was to examine the effects of nature on valuing intrinsic and extrinsic
aspirations, immersion was recognized as an important variable. In particular, Weinstein,
Przybylski and Ryan hypothesized that “the effects of nature experiences maybe especially
robust when individuals are immersed in these environments” (Weinstein, Przybylski &
Ryan, 2009, p.1315). They claim that when immersed individuals are more likely to attend to
what is characteristic about the environment that they are in. In fact, Weinstein, Przybylski
and Ryan study findings suggest exactly that – depending on the environment, its
characteristics can be experienced more profoundly if a person is more immersed. For
example, Weinstein, Przybylski and Ryan when writing about the results of their study point
to a fact that “when exposed to and immersed in non-nature scenes, participants espoused
higher extrinsic aspirations and no change in intrinsic aspirations” (Weinstein, Przybylski &
Ryan, 2009, p.1315).
Considering the purpose for which Przybylski et al. use the concept of
immersion one can say that it is mainly used for persuading. It is evident if you look at the
way they chose to conceptualize immersion. To begin with, the main purpose of Przybylski et
al. study was to explore if appeal of video games has anything to do with players wanting to

15. 12
try the ideal aspect of their self virtually. To prove that authors needed a factor that could be
measured and which could reflect a relationship between game character and actual
personality traits. Immersion was chosen as that factor. After all, without immersion a person
would not be able to respond to a virtual environment in a manner that would make most
sense in terms of congruence between real life and ideal-self characteristics. Additionally, via
reference to work of Weinstein, Przybylski and Ryan, Przybylski et al. came up with
definition of immersion that particularly stresses the importance of environmental influence
on intrinsic player motivations. The conceptualization of immersion as it was done by
Przybylski et al. was necessary to persuade and prove a point “that immersion in virtual
environments is a key to identifications” (Przybylski et al., 2012, p.74).
Speaking about a tool used to measure immersion Przybylski et al relied on a
nine-item Presence sub-scale of the Player Experience of Need Satisfaction Scale. Player
Experience of Need Satisfaction Scale or PENS was originally developed to measure intrinsic
as well as extrinsic motivation in interactive environments (Ryan et al, 2006, p.3; Weinstein
et al, 2009, p.1317). But PENS can also be used in research that concerns investigation of
players‟ motivation to play games. This is because PENS heavily relies on notions from self-
determination theory or SDT. Within field of research that concerns gamers‟ motivations
SDT is often used as a theoretical starting point from which one begins his investigation. It is
argued that SDT fits gaming research because it addresses factors that have an effect on
intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation. And factors facilitating intrinsic motivation are
particularly relevant when studying player‟s motivations. In other words, intrinsic motivation
is a type of motivation that is “relevant to computer game participation for which, like sport,
most players do not derive extra-game rewards or approval” (Ryan et al, 2006, p.3).
Therefore, in SDT intrinsic motivation is what underlies inherent satisfactions derived from
action. Additionally, there is another relevant mini-theory that is derived from SDT. CET or
cognitive evaluation theory states that there are three fundamental human needs that need to
be satisfied in order for an activity to provide an intrinsic motivation and thus satisfaction
(Przybylski, Rigby & Ryan, 2010, p.155; Ryan et al, 2006, p.3). These are competence,
autonomy and relatedness. There also appears to be a direct link between fulfillment of those
human needs and experience of presence and immersion. Rigby and Ryan argue that “the
experience of autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfactions were among the strongest
predictors of a player feeling physically immersed in the game world, even when compared
to things like the quality of graphics and sound” (Ryan & Rigby, 2011, p.89). Such

16. 13
theoretical contribution via SDT and CET really helps when trying to measure immersion or
presence. As is often the case conceptualizations of immersion while indicative of what
experience might be like, often fall short at specifying facilitators or psychological
components of presence (Ryan et al, 2006, p.4). But because PENS questionnaire relies on
SDT and CET it manages to overcome this latter issue – facilitation of presence becomes a
matter of fulfilling previously mentioned human needs. Therefore, to provide a measure of
immersion or presence the questions in PENS target personal experience in regards to
fulfillment of competence, autonomy and relatedness. Responses to items on PENS have to
be provided on a scales ranging from “1 (not at all) to 5 (quite a bit)” (2012, p.73).
Third Research
The third study that I am going to talk about was carried out by Elly Konijn, Marije Bijvank
and Brad Bushman. In a research article titled I Wish I Were a Warrior: The Role of Wishful
Identification in the Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggression in Adolescent Boys (2007)
authors report on their study in which they tested the hypothesis that violent video games are
likely to increase aggression when players identify with violent game characters. Concerning
the outcome of the study, although not all hypotheses were confirmed Elly Konijn, Marije
Bijvank and Brad Bushman claim that they have managed to prove their main point –
individual aggression was related to a wishful identification with violent video game
character while playing violent video game. Interestingly enough, immersion in this
particular study although recognized as relevant variable did not seem to have an effect on
aggressive behavior. Nevertheless, Elly Konijn, Marije Bijvank and Brad Bushman suggest
that higher levels of immersion helped individuals to identify with a game character.
That being said, I will now look to what extent in this study immersion was
recognized as a concept. To begin with, Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman reflect on recent
trends in video production and general technical developments. Authors acknowledge the fact
that due to those mentioned trends games are becoming more lifelike and realistic (Konijn,
Bijvank & Bushman, 2007, p.1039). Additionally, Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman consider
maximization of realism in visual media as a mean that evokes immersion. Finally,
considering that realism and immersion are related to each other authors predict that “realism
and immersion would increase the likelihood that players would identify with the heroes in
the game” (Konijn, Bijvank & Bushman, 2007, p.1039). With that in mind, the concept of
immersion is not really well explained. There is no definition that describes the meaning

17. 14
behind immersion or what it entails, except for the fact that it should help players to identify
with game characters.
However, one could still figure out what conception of immersion authors rely
on. This can be done by looking at what is being referenced when talking about immersion.
At this particular instance, Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman refer to a paper by Johan F. Hoorn,
Elly A. Konijn, and Gerrit C. van der Veer titled Virtual Reality: Do Not Augment Realism,
Augment Relevance (2003). To be more specific, Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman use the term
„total immersion‟ that is discussed in a work by Hoorn, Konijn and der Veer. According to
Hoorn, Konijn and der Veer most compelling experiences in virtual reality evoke a sense of
total immersion. In other words, the fiction in virtual reality can become so realistic that a
subject might submit himself/herself to that fiction as if it was real (Hoorn, Konijn & der
Veer, 2003, p.22). However, one should be wary of the fact that when Hoorn, Konijn and der
Veer use the term realistic to describe immersive experience they have something else in
mind than merely visual aspect of virtual fiction. And this is where Konijn, Bijvank and
Bushman seem to miss the point, since they emphasize exactly the opposite – the
maximization of realism or lifelikeness is supposed to be a crucial element for total
immersion. Whereas Hoorn, Konijn and der Veer claim that realistic features of virtual
environment should not be the focus of attention when creating evocative and, thus,
immersive experiences in virtual worlds. Instead of putting focus on realism as a core aspect
for an immersive experience, the emphasis should be on “increasing the personal meaning of
a simulated (work) situation, providing features that tune in to the goals and concerns of the
user” (Hoorn, Konijn & der Veer, 2003, p.22). Therefore, when Hoorn, Konijn and der Veer
speak about total immersion they consider it to be an outcome of congruence between
player‟s intrinsic motivations and virtual environment‟s ability to respond to those
motivations. On the other hand, when Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman introduce the term total
immersion, they speak of it in terms of visual fidelity and virtual environment‟s potential to
appear lifelike. This exactly why before speaking about total immersion Konijn, Bijvank and
Bushman reflect on trends in video production and technical developments that supposed to
maximize this realness or lifelikeness.
Moving on to the purpose for the use of the concept of immersion it is used to
persuade. The concept of immersion in the case with Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman helps to
identify the relationship between player‟s aggressive traits and how these traits manifest in
virtual worlds via character identification. In other words, the more immersed you are the

18. 15
more likely you are to identify with you game character. On the other hand, you are more
likely to identify with your avatar if in the game world he exhibits personality traits that are
akin to your own. In that sense, immersion becomes a factor that signifies relationship
between your personality traits and identity that you take up while in the game world.
Therefore, Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman use immersion to prove a point that individuals
with aggressive personality traits will become more immersed in violent video games due to
stronger character identification. For that matter, they use the concept of immersion to
persuade.
For measurement Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman use a three-item scale for
spatial presence, involvement and realness (Konijn, Bijvank & Bushman, 2007, p.1041). The
three-item scale was originally developed by Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht.
According to these authors, presence and immersion are two different things: one depends on
subjective experience (presence), while the other can be objectively quantified since it relies
on technical prowess to deliver the illusion of reality. In other words, although there might
not be a direct one-to-one relationship between presence and immersion, it is often claimed
that the former is an outcome of the latter (Schubert, Friedmann & Regenbrecht, 2001,
p.267). This lack of clear cut relationship between two phenomenons leads Schubert,
Friedmann and Regenbrecht to propose that instead it is cognitive processes that mediates
impact of immersion on presence. By that these authors want to suggest that cognitive
process is a central feature for development of presence. After all, Schubert, Friedmann and
Regenbrecht observe, it is the mind that constructs a mental picture of surrounding world in
response to stimuli from virtual environments. This latter observation, then, is turned into an
argument that “virtual environment, like every other environment, is perceived and
understood by mentally combining potential patterns of actions” (Schubert, Friedmann &
Regenbrecht, 2001, p.267). This process of understanding environment through potential
patterns of actions is termed as construction of meshed sets of patterns of action. Naturally,
this also means that experience of presence is directly related to one‟s cognitive ability to
process an environment in terms of what type of action one can produce in it. That is, the
“more possibilities there are of interacting, the more cognitive meshings are possible, and
presence increases” (Regenbrecht & Schubert, 2002, p.426).
More specifically, Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht argue that two
cognitive processes are of upmost importance in the emergence of presence: construction of a
mental model and attention allocation. Construction of a mental model can be thought of as a

19. 16
sense of being and acting from within a particular environment, virtual for example.
Attention allocation, on the other hand, means that one is focusing all attention on virtual
environment instead of being distracted by real surroundings. When devising a three-item
scale Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht took two previous arguments into account and
tested it with actual users. What they found out was that, indeed, when users reported on their
subjective experience of presence three major factors stood out more than others (Schubert,
Friedmann & Regenbrecht, 2001, p.271). Spatial presence factor and involvement factor were
the ones that directly responded to authors‟ claims about presence being affected by
construction of a mental model and attention allocation. Additionally, a third factor was
identified, which suggested that realness also plays a part in user‟s subjective experience of
presence. Considering their findings Schuber, Friedmann and Regenbrecht developed a three-
item scale for spatial presence, involvement and realness.
Alternatives
Looking back at three cases from psychology journals it is evident that immersion is a
slippery concept. The definitions are varied: sometimes overlapping with one another or even
meaning different thing. We have seen that concept of presence quite often becomes used
interchangeably with immersion. That being said, by conceptually analyzing immersion from
three cases in psychology journals I have only scratched the surface. In following paragraphs
I will expand on alternative conceptualizations of immersion and other pertinent concepts. I
will also reflect on objective measures that can be taken into account when scientifically
assessing immersion or presence.
While in three cases from psychology journals we came into contact with such
concepts as immersion and presence, these are not the only ones that have definitional
similarities. Another concept that is often used in game studies is called flow. In a paper,
Correlating the effects of flow and telepresence in virtual worlds: Enhancingour
understanding of user behavior in game-based learning (2013), authors Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff
and Smyslova employ the latter definition. Flow, Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff and Smyslova explain
that flow is:
“a feeling of enjoyment and psychological immersion, energized focus, and
involvement, often accompanied by positive emotions or sense of pleasure. In such a

20. 17
state of mind, time appears to stand still, we lose our sense of self, and we enjoy
engaging in an activity for its own sake. Flow‟s benefits relative to other states of
consciousness make it a useful goal as people look to building virtual environments
for online business, health care, education, and gaming.” (Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff &
Smyslova, 2013, p.1113)
Simply by reading it one can find conceptual similarities with immersion or presence. In
fact, that is what part of Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff and Smyslova‟s research is about and that is to
find out similarities between the flow and experience of telepresence. Telepresence here has
to be understood as a mediated experience of spatial presence (Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff &
Smyslova, 2013, p.1116). In this thesis we first came across spatial presence when I talked
about Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht‟s three-item scale for spatial presence,
involvement and realness. This three item scale is generally used for measurement of
presence; spatial presence is seen as an outcome of a cognitive process that allows one to
construct a mental model of the virtual environment. Thus spatial presence is a contributing
factor to emergence of presence. But back to Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff and Smyslova: one of
their hypothesis claims that “[f]low experience is positively correlated with the experience of
telepresence while using SL [Second Life]” (Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff & Smyslova, 2013,
p.1117). Their research findings support the latter hypothesis. Additionally, there are some
similarities between SDT and some parts of definition of flow as it is provided by Faiola,
Newlon, Pfaff and Smyslova. According to SDT video games or gaming could be
intrinsically motivating if three fundamental human needs are satisfied in the process of play.
On the other hand, if we look at the definition of flow we see that Faiola, Newlon, Pfaff and
Smyslova state that due to flow an activity can become enjoyable for its own sake. That also
means that flow affects intrinsic motivation.
In another research paper that is titled The influence of virtual presence: Effects
on experienced cognitive load and learning outcomes in educational computer games (2012)
Claudia Schrader and Theo J. Bastiaens introduce a term of virtual presence. Although these
two authors in their paper acknowledge a variety of ways in which presence can be defined
they opt to employ a definition that is quite specific in its own way. For example, Schrader
and Bastiaens, when describing virtual presence, explicitly put emphasis on emotions.
Subjective nature of emotions is stressed in addition to saying that emotions are less stable
over time and are influenced by context and situation. In the end Schrader and Bastiaens
settle on a definition of virtual presence according to which it is “an actual subjective

21. 18
emotional state in which a user is fully immersed in a virtual activity in a mediated
environment to the extent that time disappears and external situations that tend to interfere
with performance do not distract the user” (Schrader & Bastiaens, 2012, p.649). While quite
unique if compared to other more traditional definitions of presence or immersion, virtual
presence seems to have definitional similarities to the experience of flow. In both instances,
with flow and virtual presence, time appears to become diluted in one way or another. Also
according to each definition the user becomes so engrossed by the experience that he/she
looses a sense of self to the extent that external distractions become unnoticeable. And
although it would seem that similarities between definitions in both cases are quite evident
there are researchers that state that presence does not induce an altered state of consciousness
unlike flow (Brockmyer, Fox, Curtiss, McBroom, Burkhart & Pidruzny, 2009, p.625).
Speaking of immersion one can also find alternative accounts that suggest
different factors that are supposed to contribute to the experience of being immersed. For
example, in a study by Qin, Rau and Salvendy authors set out to develop a questionnaire that
would measure subjective experience of immersion. Although these authors employ a
definition of immersion that is rather standard – it is a sensation that one is being surrounded
by completely different reality – it is recognized that the concept is multidimensional (Qin,
Rau & Salvendy, 2009, p.114). It is also stated that it is not known what exactly causes
immersion to be experienced. Their solution to this problem is adopted from other work by
Chen, Wigand and Nilan on the concept of flow; it is argued that immersion just like flow can
be categorized into three stages that are antecedents, experiences and effects (Qin, Rau &
Salvendy, 2009, p.114). In other words, individual has to gradually pass all of the three stages
to enter into experience of flow or immersion. These three stages allow Qin, Rau and
Salvendy to further elaborate on conditions that are prevalent in each stage of experience.
Additionally, Qin, Rau and Salvendy elaborate on conditions relevant to each stage of
immersion in the context of a game narrative. In the end authors propose six dimension that
are included in their immersion questionnaire: curiosity, concentration, control, challenge,
comprehension and empathy (Qin, Rau & Salvendy, 2009, p.116). Conversely, Witmer &
Singer presence questionnaire that was used in a study by Barlett et al. to measure immersion
consists of only four factor groups. Therefore, with immersion there appears to be not only
conceptual differences, but also differences in selected factors or dimension that are pertinent
to the measurement of immersion.

22. 19
So far I have talked about immersion, presence and similar concepts only in
terms of definitions that these concepts pertain to. However, there are various researches that
indicate that it is possible and quite viable to measure these phenomena objectively. For
example, task completion time and eye movements can be quite obvious measures that one
can take into account when quantifying the level of immersion. In a study titled Measuring
and defining the experience of immersion in games (2008) researchers Jennett, Cox, Cairns,
Dhoparee, Epps, Tijs and Walton considered exactly that and referred to the latter measures .
Regarding task completion time it was argued that the more individuals are immersed in
specific virtual environment the longer it will take them to re-engage into another activity in
the real world, thus leading to an increased task completion time (Cox, Cairns, Dhoparee,
Epps, Tijs & Walton, 2008, pp.645-646). As for eye movements Jennett et al. argued that
immersion leads to minimal eye movements since participant‟s attention becomes more
focused. On the other hand, lack of immersion would result in the opposite, which is an
increase in eye movements. Both hypotheses, the one concerning task completion time and
eye movements, were confirmed by Jennett et al. These findings allowed these researchers to
conclude that “immersion involves a lack of awareness of time, a loss of awareness of the
real world, involvement and a sense of being in the task environment” (Cox et al., 2008,
p.657).
In another research article Meehan, Razzaque, Insko, Whitton and Brooks Jr.
provided a review of four studies in which physiological reactions were used as measures of
presence. Researchers hypothesized that since virtual environments to a degree appear real it
would mean that physiological responses to these artificial environments should also
resemble responses to real environments. As for physiological measures three were selected:
heart rate, skin conductance and skin temperature. All three measures proved to some extent
reliable, while heart rate was particularly indicative of presence since this physiological
measure also correlated highly with user‟ reported presence (Meehan, Razzaque, Insko,
Whitton & Brooks Jr, 2005, pp.241, 249).
Finally, I will talk about other relevant factors that have to be accounted for
when measuring immersion. In a research article Effects of screen size, viewing angle, and
players’ immersion tendencies on game experience (2012) Hou, Nam, Peng and Lee suggest
that such technological factors as screen size and viewing angle have a direct influence on a
feeling of presence. These authors came to a conclusion that, indeed, “projecting the digital
gaming contents in physically more prominent form needs to be counted as one of the central

23. 20
concepts among all contributing factors of presence” (Hou, Nam, Peng & Lee, 2012, p.622).
It is not that surprising considering the fact that often when conceptualizing immersion
another contributing factor or dimension is realness of the virtual experience. For that matter,
technological factors that enhance visual fidelity naturally become also relevant to the
experience of presence or immersion. But it is not only technological factors that have to do
with visual representation of virtual environment that are of significance. In many instances
when conceptualizing immersion or presence control factors that enhance player‟s autonomy
in the game are deemed equally important (Ryan & Rigby, 2011; Witmer & Singer, 1998).
Therefore, a technology that improves one‟s movement and form of interaction should also
be a relevant in terms of improving presence and immersion. A study done by McGloin,
Farrar and Krcmar investigated precisely that. These authors recognize the fact that often in
game studies realism is conceptualized through factors that increase graphical quality.
However, of equal importance is naturalness of controls. In other words, “[t]he concept of
controller naturalness represents the overall intuitiveness a controller is perceived to have
when interacting with a virtual environment” (McGloin, Farrar & Krcmar, 2013, p.70). For
example, a controller that tracks the gestures of your hands via motion tracking hardware
would be perceived as much more natural if compared to a simple pressing of a button via
traditional input devices like joystick or mouse and keyboard. Not only that, but naturalness,
according to my McGloin, Farrar and Krcmar‟s findings, also contributes to greater
immersion (McGloin, Farrar & Krcmar, 2013, p.80). This only further proves the point that
various technological factors are of equal importance to the experience of immersion and
presence.
Discussion
Objectivity is one of the core elements that gives credibility to whole scientific research.
However, assuring that one‟s findings pertain to the data that is objective can be a tedious
task. The research that concerns investigation of the effects that games have on individual
behavior is a perfect example of that. When researchers investigate possible effects of games
they try to achieve a remarkable level of objectivity. In fact, the strife for objectivity is so
uniform that researchers have no other option, but to make sure that even their conceptual
constructions, like immersion for example, are viable to scientific quantification. However,

24. 21
when dealing with such intangible thing as a concept one faces a problem. In particular, in
what way the explication of the concept allows one to distinguish between relevant factors
that could provide a reliable measurement of the thing that one tries to measure.
In this thesis I have tried to investigate how an element of conceptual
framework in research on games shapes the factors that are taken into account when
providing a measurement of a concept. Indeed, what is it that one has to measure to account
for such thing as immersion? Let me gradually go through my research findings and explain
how researchers approached this matter. In the process I will also take note of problems
related to the approach that these researchers took.
Starting with a first case by Barlett et al. one of the first obvious peculiarities
about their approach was the way they chose to conceptualize immersion. In this case authors
proceeded to put two concepts into a category of one. That is, immersion was equated with
presence. The problem with that is that two concepts mean rather different things. In fact, it is
often assumed that immersion leads to presence (Qin, Rau & Salvendy, 2009, p.113). Thus it
seems that when Barlett et al. speak of immersion they actually have in mind presence – a
concept that describes the outcome rather than the process of getting to that outcome.
Nonetheless, one can still argue that such definitional confusion was intentional. After all, to
measure immersion or in this particular instance presence authors relied on Presence
questionnaire by Witmer and Singer. Strangely enough questionnaire‟ authors recognize this
conceptual difference and, thus, regard immersion as one of the contributing conditions to the
experience of presence (Witmer & Singer, 1998, p.227). That being said, one would assume
that Barlett et al. chose Witmer and Singer‟s tool because it actually measures presence. And
considering that Witmer and Singer regard immersion as a relevant condition for presence
Barlett et al. decision to put two concepts into one category appears at least partly justified.
However, that does not mean that there are no problems with questionnaire itself. An avid
critic of Witmer and Singer, Mel Slater, acknowledges that their measurement tool is not
entirely up to the task. The main argument of Slater is that factors that influence presence are
subjectively defined and self-referential (Slater, 1999, pp.5-8). In other words, Presence
questionnaire measures what is supposed to be factors influencing presence, but not the
presence itself. Slater concludes that he would never use Witmer and Singer questionnaire.
Moving on to the case of Przybylski et al. we find a similar situation as with
Barlett et al. The only difference this time is that Przybylski et al. definition of immersion is
of dual nature. Therefore, the first part of the definition pertains to the concept of presence,

25. 22
while the second part regards the concept of immersion (Lombard & Ditton, 1997; Przybylski
et al., 2012; Weinstein, Przybylski & Ryan, 2009). This dual elaboration on the concept of
immersion is justified by the aim of the study: on the one hand the study deals with a medium
that evokes the feeling of presence via illusion of nonmediation; on the other hand the study
explores players‟ motivations to which immersion is held imperative. A measurement tool
chosen by Przybylski et al. takes into account these two dimensions; PENS questionnaire
because it is developed with SDT and CET in mind acknowledges three fundamental human
needs that need to be fulfilled to provide intrinsic motivation even if the medium is video
games. The minor problem with questionnaire is that it is not entirely clear how it reconciles
two concepts, that of presence and immersion, into a unified conceptual structure. As I have
already noted, presence and immersion are not entirely the same thing.
In the last research case that I have looked at the problem was not so much with
confusion of terms presence and immersion. Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman quite evidently
rely on the concept of immersion in their study even though they are not as clear as to what it
entails. And that seemed to contribute to the main issue with their conceptualization. In other
words, although these authors relied on a concept of immersion there were some
misconceptions regarding the factors that are of significance to this concept. Konijn, Bijvank
and Bushman stressed the importance of realism and lifelikeness, while the literature to
which they referred for the conceptualization of immersion stated quite the opposite –
immersion is an outcome of congruence between player‟s intrinsic motivations and virtual
environment‟s ability to respond to those motivations (Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman, 2007;
Hoorn, Konijn and der Veer, 2003). For measurement of immersion Konijn, Bijvank and
Bushman rely on a scale developed by Schubert, Friedmann and Regenbrecht. Considering
that Konijn, Bijvank and Bushman employ the definition of immersion in their research, it is
strange that they opted for a questionnaire/scale that is used for measurement of presence.
Once again, even though immersion and presence may share some common features and may
have similar influential factors, the two concepts are not the same thing.
Conclusion
In summary, all of the three cases exhibited some confusion towards the use of the concepts
of immersion and presence: sometimes authors would use one concept, but mean completely
different thing; other times the questionnaire used for measurement would rely on different

26. 23
conceptualization of immersion or presence. These three cases serve as perfect example that
indicates what type of epistemological problems come up when constructing scientific facts.
In other words, when dealing with such an elusive psychological phenomenon as immersion
it is hard to define it in a way that would allow for objective quantification. This is
particularly evident when one tries to do it using such measurement tool as questionnaire; a
variety of extensive conceptualizations does not help either. It is generally stated that
evaluation of physiological factors is a lot better approach to measuring immersion than
reliance on such subjective measure tool as a questionnaire/scale (Meehan et al., 2005).
Another aspect that these questionnaires seem to miss is technology. For example, while
realness of virtual environment and control or autonomy factors are recognized as relevant
conditions to the experience of presence, there is scarcely any mention of technology that
fuels these variables. As noted earlier viewing angle, screen size and the type of controller are
all pertinent technological variables that have an influence to the experience of immersion
(Hou, Nam, Peng & Lee, 2012; McGloin, Farrar & Krcmar, 2013).
That being said, I think I have pointed out why questionnaires are quite tricky
tools to use: factors that these tools take into regarding when providing a measurement are
subjectively constructed; there are many ways to conceptualize immersion and this leads to
identification of different factors that determine what is of influence to the concept; different
factors provide different measurements; it is hard to pin point how pertinent measurement
factors relate to the concept with which they are associated. It is evident that science‟s
tendency to objectify whatever it is conceptualizing leads to a chaotic outcome. Not only that,
but it shows how the process of creation of scientific facts can be pervaded by
epistemological problems. In this case the problems stem from conceptual confusion.

27. 24
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