This document discusses pain management in cancer patients. It covers the pathophysiology of pain, assessment strategies, drug and non-drug treatment options, managing special populations, patient education, and Joint Commission standards. The key aspects are conducting a comprehensive initial pain assessment, developing an individualized treatment plan using the WHO analgesic ladder as a guide, treating breakthrough pain, managing side effects, and employing multimodal therapies including pharmacological and nonpharmacological options.

1. Pain Management in Patients
with Cancer

2. Pain Management in Patients
with Cancer
 Pathophysiology of pain
 Management strategy
 Assessment and ongoing evaluation
 Drug therapy
 Nondrug therapy
 Pain management in special populations
 Patient education
 The Joint Commission (TJC) pain
management standards

3. Pathophysiology of Pain
 What is pain?
 Unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
associated with actual or potential tissue damage
 The most reliable method of assessing pain is to
have the patient describe his or her experience.

4. Pathophysiology of Pain
 Neurophysiologic basis of painful sensations
 Nociceptive pain vs. neuropathic pain
 Nociceptive pain
• Results from injury to tissues
• Two forms: somatic and visceral pain
 Neuropathic pain
• Results from injury to peripheral nerves
• Responds poorly to opioids
 Pain in cancer patients

5. Management Strategy
 ASK about pain regularly.
 Assess pain systematically.
 BELIEVE the patient and family in their reports of
pain and what relieves it.
 CHOOSE pain control options appropriate for the
patient, family, and setting.
 DELIVER interventions in a timely, logical,
coordinated fashion.
 EMPOWER patients and their families.
 Enable patients to control their treatment to the greatest
extent possible.

6. Assessment and Ongoing Evaluation
 Comprehensive initial assessment
 Intensity and character of pain
 Physical and neurologic examination
 Diagnostic tests
 Psychosocial assessment
 Pain intensity scales
 Ongoing evaluation
 Barriers to assessment

7. Comprehensive Initial Assessment
 The primary objective: to characterize the
pain and identify its cause
 Assessment of pain intensity and character:
the patient’s self-report
 Onset and temporal pattern
 Location
 Quality
 Intensity
 Modulating factors
 Previous treatment
 Impact

8. Fig. 29–1. Flow chart for pain management in patients with cancer.

9. Comprehensive Initial Assessment
 Physical and neurologic examinations
 Diagnostic tests
 Psychosocial assessment
 Directed at both patient and family
 Pain intensity scales

10. Fig. 29–2. Linear pain intensity scales.
*If used as a graphic rating scale, a 10-cm baseline is recommended.

11. Fig. 29–3. Wong-Baker FACES pain rating scale.
Explain to the patient that the first face represents a person who feels happy because he or she
has no pain, and that the other faces represent people who feel sad because they have pain,
ranging from a little to a lot. Explain that face 10 represents a person who hurts as much as you
can imagine, but that you don’t have to be crying to feel this bad. Ask the patient to choose the
face that best reflects how he or she is feeling. The numbers below the faces correspond to the
values in the numeric pain scale shown in Figure 29–2.

12. Ongoing Evaluation
 Reassess frequently
 Evaluate after sufficient time has elapsed
 Be alert for the development of new pain

13. Barriers to Assessment
 Inaccurate reporting by patient
 Under-reporting by patient
 Language and cultural barriers

14. Drug Therapy
 Nonopioid analgesics
 Opioid analgesics
 Adjuvant analgesics

15. Drug Therapy
 WHO analgesic ladder
 Step 1: mild to moderate pain
• Nonopioid analgesic
• NSAIDs and acetaminophen
 Step 2: more severe pain
• Add opioid analgesic, oxycodone, hydrocodone
 Step 3: severe pain
• Substitute powerful opioid—morphine, fentanyl
WHO = World Health Organization.

16. Fig. 29–4. The World Health Organization (WHO) analgesic ladder for cancer pain management.
Note that steps represent pain intensity. Accordingly, if a patient has intense pain at the outset,
then treatment can be initiated with an opioid (step 2), rather than trying a nonopioid first (step 1).

17. Nonopioid Analgesics
 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
 NSAIDs (aspirin, ibuprofen)
 Acetaminophen
 Acetaminophen (Tylenol, others)

18. Opioid Analgesics
 Mechanism of action and classification
 Tolerance and physical dependence
 Addiction
 Drug selection
 Preferred opioids
 Opioid rotation
 Opioids to use with special caution
 Dosage

19. Drug Selection
 Pure opioid agonists are preferred for all
cancer patients
 Opioid rotation
 Dosage should be individualized
 Use with caution
 Methadone (Dolophine), levorphanol (Levo-
Dromoran), codeine
 Avoid
 Meperidine (Demerol)

20. Routes of Administration
 Oral
 Rectal
 Transdermal
 Intravenous and subcutaneous
 Intramuscular
 Intraspinal
 Intraventricular
 Patient-controlled analgesia

21. Managing Breakthrough Pain
 Patients may experience transient episodes
of moderate to severe breakthrough pain
 Access to rescue medication
 Strong opioid with rapid onset and short duration

22. Managing Side Effects
 Respiratory depression
 Constipation
 Sedation
 Nausea and vomiting
 Other side effects

23. Adjuvant Analgesics
 Used to complement the effects of opioids—
not used as substitutes
 Tricyclic antidepressants
 Amitriptyline (Elavil)
 Antiseizure drugs
 Local anesthetics/antidysrhythmics

24. Adjuvant Analgesics
 CNS stimulants
 Antihistamines
 Hydroxyzine (Vistaril)
 Glucocorticoids
 Bisphosphonates

25. Invasive Procedures
 Neurolytic nerve block
 Neurosurgery
 Tumor surgery
 Radiation therapy

26. Physical and Psychosocial
Interventions
 Physical interventions
 Heat
 Cold
 Massage
 Exercise
 Acupuncture and transcutaneous electrical nerve
stimulation

27. Physical and Psychosocial
Interventions
 Psychosocial interventions
 Relaxation and imagery
 Cognitive distraction
 Peer support groups

28. Pain Management in Special
Populations
 Older adults
 Young children
 Opioid abusers

29. Older Adults
 Heightened drug sensitivity
 Undertreatment of pain
 Misconceptions
• Belief that elderly patients are insensitive to pain
• Belief that elderly patients can tolerate pain well
• Belief that elderly patients are highly sensitive to opioid
side effects
 Increased risks of side effects and adverse
interactions

30. Young Children
 Assessment
 Verbal children
 Preverbal and nonverbal children
 Treatment

31. Opioid Abusers
 Two primary obligations
 Try to relieve the pain
 Avoid giving opioids simply because the patient
wants to get high

32. Patient Education
 General issues
 Nature and causes of pain
 Assessment/importance of honest self-reporting
 Plans for drug and nondrug therapy
 Drug therapy
 Tolerance
 Physical dependence and addiction
 Fear of severe side effects
 Nondrug therapy
 Focuses on psychosocial interventions

33. The Joint Commission Pain
Management Standards
 Purpose is to make assessment and
management of pain a priority in healthcare
 Compliance is mandatory