6. Opiate vs. Opioid
Opiates derived from the opium poppy
Opioids
– Used to be called “synthetic opiates”
– Active ingredients are chemically synthesized
Opioid is used for the entire family
of opiates including natural, synthetic and
semi-synthetic
7. OPIATES OPIOIDS
Opium oxycodone
heroin hydrocodone
morphine hydromorphone
codeine fentanyl
All the above may be swallowed, injected,
nasally inhaled, smoked, chewed, or used
as suppositories.
8. Opioid Use Disorder
Definition1
Repeated occurrence within a 12-month period
of 2 or more of 11 problems, including
withdrawal, giving up important life events in
order to use opioids, and excessive time spent
using opioids
Mild (2-3 symptoms)
Moderate (4-5 symptoms)
Severe (≥ 6 symptoms)
1
DSM, 2013
10. Opioid Pharmacology
Opioids activate specific transmembrane
neurotransmitter receptors
– Mu, kappa, delta (mu most studied)
– Located in CNS and PNS
Once activated, these receptors couple G proteins
– this is why they are called G coupled-protein
receptors (GCPR’s)
Once the G proteins are coupled, signal transduction
begins (intracellular communication) which affects
cAMP
Opioid receptor SNP’s can reduce analgesia and
increase likelihood of dependence
11. Scope of the Problem
Four people in the U.S. die every hour due
to an opioid overdose (2015)1
More people die from overdoses than from
auto accidents
Almost one-third of women of reproductive
age were prescribed an opioid in the
previous year2
1
Rudd et al.
2
Ailes et al.
12. Scope of the Problem
In the U.S. over the past decade, opioid
use has quadrupled with 259 million
prescriptions in 20121
80% of heroin users began with misusing
prescription opioids
1
CDC
2
Jones
13. Scope of the Problem
In the past decade, fivefold increase in
neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome
(NOWS)1
Each year, since 2012,~22,000 neonates
born with NOWS in the U.S.2
– Translates to one neonate with NAS born
every 30 minutes
– Costs (hospital charges) approach $1.5
billion1
Patrick et al., J
Perinatol
14. Origin of the Problem
In 1990’s, concerns about neglecting
patient’s pain, leading to overprescribing of
narcotics
93% of those who undergo cesarean section
have leftover narcotics
– many unfamiliar with disposal techniques
1 in 300 who undergo cesarean section
become a persistent user of opioids
15. Obstacles
As of 2016, only 19 states have drug
treatment programs specifically targeted
to pregnancy1
Only 12 states provide pregnant women
with priority access to state-funded drug
treatment programs
Limited number of providers for
buprenorphine
1
Guttmacher
16. Risks of Untreated Heroin Addiction
During Pregnancy
lack of prenatal care
increased risk IUGR
increased risk placental
abruption
PTL
IUFD
meconium passage in-
utero
STI’s
prostitution
loss of child custody
incarceration
18. Timing of Opioid Withdrawal
Symptoms
Short-acting opioids (heroin)
– begin within 4–6 hours of use
– peak at 1–3 days
– gradually subside over 5–7 days
Long-acting opioids (methadone)
– begin within 24–36 hours of use
– decrease by day 10
– may last for several weeks
Opioid withdrawal rarely associated with
severe morbidity
19. Screening For Substance Abuse
During Pregnancy
Clinical utility of standardized questionnaires
unclear
Disagreement among professional societies
Per USPSTF, insufficient evidence to evaluate
benefits and harms of screening
ACOG recommends screening all women for
substance use before and during early
pregnancy and providing intervention when
needed
21. Drug Screening
Urine testing has high specificity and PPV
depending on the assay and opioid being tested
Urine testing may not be able to distinguish
between occasional and regular use
Short half-life of most substances and related
metabolites limits urine detection to recent use
only
Negative test does not rule out substance use
(especially if sporadic)
False-positive tests can occur
22. Drug Screening
Urine should be performed with patient’s
consent in compliance with existing state
laws
Before screening, patients should be
informed of potential consequences of a
positive test, including any mandatory
reporting requirements
23. Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal
Syndrome (NOWS)
Also referred to as neonatal abstinence syndrome
(NAS)
Hyperactivity of the CNS and ANS
Incidence highly variable
– Up to 80% of opioid-exposed neonates require
pharmacologic intervention
Optimal assessment of the neonate with NOWS not
been definitively established
Current tools subjective in nature and designed to
assess term neonates
– Don’t apply well preterm or polysubstance-exposed
24. Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal
Syndrome (NOWS)
All neonates born to women who use opioids
during pregnancy should be monitored for
NOWS for at least 5 days1
Other substances such as nicotine, selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and
benzodiazepines may increase incidence and
severity of NOWS
Promote breastfeeding
1
American Academy of Pediatrics
25. Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal
Syndrome (NOWS)
With methadone exposure:
– signs appear within 3–5 days of birth
– may appear as late as a week of age
– may last days to weeks and rarely months
With buprenorphine exposure:
– signs appear within 12-48 hours of life
– peak at 72–96 hours
– resolve by 7 days of life
27. Opioid Dependent Patients
Breastfeeding
Decreased severity of NOWS
Increased maternal confidence, stress reduction
Enhanced maternal-child bonding
Breastfed infants less likely to need pharmacologic
treatment for NOWS
If infant treated for NOWS, breastfed infants require
lower doses of morphine, shorter LOS
May enhance compliance with MAT
AAP recommends breastfeeding for women
taking methadone or buprenorphine regardless
of the dose
28. Opioid agonist pharmacotherapy (medication-
assisted treatment) is the standard of care for
women with
opioid use disorder in pregnancy.
Both the World Health Organization and
the American Society of Addiction Medicine
support
methadone and buprenorphine as medication
treatment
options for pregnant women.
29. Opioid Agonist Therapy
During Pregnancy
Lower risk of maternal relapse to street drugs
Improved compliance with prenatal care
Improves adherence to prenatal care and addiction
treatment programs
No increased risk of congenital anomalies
In combination with prenatal care, appears to
reduce the risk of adverse outcomes
Risk of NOWS 30-80%
The potential benefits outweigh the risk of NOWS
30. Methadone
Complete mu agonist
Better option for women with longstanding multi-
substance abuse and previous failed attempts at
detoxification
No established relationship between dose
and NOWS
– Increase as necessary to prevent relapse and
withdrawal
Usually need increased dosing during pregnancy
31. Methadone
Dose usually started at 10-20 mg/d
Almost 50% require a low dose (<60 mg/d)
High dose considered >90 mg/d
Often need bid dosing
32. Buprenorphine
Partial mu agonist, kappa receptor antagonist
– Higher affinity but lower activity than complete
agonists (i.e. methadone, heroin)
– Longer duration of action than methadone
Reduced risk of overdose
Ceiling effect for respiratory depression-32 mg
As with methadone, may require dose increases
as pregnancy progresses
Administered sublingually
33. Buprenorphine Advantages
Reduced risk of overdose compared to methadone
Lower NOWS risk
Less morphine required to treat NOWS
Allows for outpatient treatment
Less stigma
Buprenorphine-exposed neonates had higher mean
gestational age, weight, length, and head
circumference at birth1
Fewer women treated with buprenorphine used illicit
opioids near delivery1
1
Brogly et al.
34. Buprenorphine Disadvantages
Lack of long-term data on infant and child outcomes
Nonsignificant yet clinically important dropout rate
resulting from dissatisfaction with the drug
More difficult induction
Potential risk of precipitated withdrawal
Reports of hepatic dysfunction
– Recent data refutes this
Significant pharmacokinetic interactions (i.e. ART)
Inappropriate for some who require more intensive
counseling and supervision
35. Buprenorphine/Naloxone
Administered sublingually or as a film
(sublingual or buccal) in 4:1 ratio
Naloxone added to prevent diversion and
IV administration
– Limited availability bioavailability SL
– Active when IV-can precipitate withdrawal
Usually not administered during pregnancy
• Some data suggests less NAS compared to
methadone1
1
Wiegand et al.
37. Medically Assisted Withdrawal
(Detoxification)
Currently not recommended
No good data supporting link to IUFD and PTB
No good long-term data
Higher relapse rate (59-90%)1
No reported decrease in NOWS2
Limited resources
1
Saia et al., Curr Obstet Gynecol
Rep
38. Intrapartum Pain Management
General Principles
Regional anesthesia preferred
– May have reduced effectiveness if short-acting
opioids also used
– May need higher doses of local anesthetic
– Non-opioids (i.e. clonidine) may be helpful
Can use short-acting opioids
– Especially if cannot tolerate regional anesthesia
Avoid mixed agonists/antagonists (butorphanol,
nalbuphine, pentazocine)-can precipitate
withdrawal
39. Patient on Methadone Maintenance
Intrapartum Pain Management
Continue maintenance dosing while in
hospital
May require higher doses of local
anesthetic for regional anesthesia
40. Patient on Buprenorphine
Maintenance
Intrapartum Pain Management
Two options
– Discontinue when arrives on L&D
• substitute with long-acting opioid (MS contin,
fentanyl patch) or short-acting opioid
(immediate release hydrocodone or
oxycodone)
• good option for planned cesarean section
Administer buprenorphine in divided doses
(every 6 hours at 25% of maintenance dose to
maximize analgesic effects
NIH Executive Summary
41. Postpartum Pain Management
General Principles
Women maintained on methadone or
buprenorphine often experience more pain after
vaginal and cesarean delivery
Require more opioid analgesia after cesarean
delivery than women in a control group
– Especially true for buprenorphine (partial mu
agonist)
Treatment of acute postsurgical pain for patients
on methadone is not a risk factor for relapse (non-
pregnant data)
42. Opioid Dependent Patients
Postpartum Pain Management
Vaginal delivery
– NSAID’s, ice packs, analgesic creams
– Acetaminophen (avoid if hepatitis C positive)
Cesarean section
– Consider PCA
– Choose hydrocodone over oxycodone
Watch for oversedation
Avoid sedating drugs that may cause respiratory
depression (benzodiazepines, zolpidem)
Prescribe limited quantities, taper when possible,
adding in NSAID’s
43. Opioid Dependency in Pregnancy
Summary
Still a lack of evidence on long-term effects of prenatal
opioid exposure
Many gaps in knowledge
Many other needs/issues to address
– increased rates of co-occuring mental health disorders
– history of sexual abuse
– history or polydrug use
– limited social supports
– chronic illnesses
– poor nutrition
44. Opioid Dependency in Pregnancy
Summary
Screen as indicated for STI’s
Screen for hepatitis C/HIV, low threshold to repeat
in third-trimester
Know your state laws re: drug testing/mandatory
reporting
Help create a standardized plan re: monitoring of
both mom and baby (peds/NICU, nurses, social
workers, CNM’s, ob/gyn, MFM)
Try not to be “punitive”
45. Opioid Dependency in Pregnancy
Summary
Antepartum testing not indicated
– If done, perform if possible 4-6 hours after methadone
dose
NICU/peds and anesthesia consults
Early epidural
Continue MAT in hospital
Encourage breastfeeding
Prescribe less after cesarean section
Consider prescribing naloxone kit for a
relative/caregiver
48. Final Thoughts………
“It is important to advocate for this often
marginalized group
of patients, particularly in terms of working to
improve
availability of treatment and to ensure that pregnant
women with opioid use disorder who seek prenatal
care are not criminalized.”
ACOG Comm Opinion
“Obstetric care providers have an ethical
responsibility to their pregnant and parenting
patients with substance use disorder to discourage
the separation of parents from their children solely
based on substance use disorder, either suspected or
confirmed.”