12 Writing Reports and ProposalsLearning ObjectivesAfter study.docx

12 Writing Reports and Proposals
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
1. 1 Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing
reports and proposals, and describe the choices involved in
drafting report and proposal content.
2. 2 Identify five characteristics of effective writing in online
reports, and explain how to adapt your writing approach for
wikis.
3. 3 Discuss six principles of graphic design, and identify the
most common types of visuals used to present data, information,
concepts, and ideas.
4. 4 Explain how to integrate visuals with text effectively and
how to verify the quality of your visuals.
On the Job: Communicating at Warby Parker Eyeing a New Way
to Sell Eyeglasses
When a company sets out to disrupt an entire industry, it’s not
surprising that its communication efforts don’t follow all the
old rules, either.
Much of the worldwide market for eyeglasses is controlled by
the Italian company Luxottica, which owns such well-known
brands as Ray-Ban and Oakley and manufactures glasses for a
host of high-fashion labels, from Dolce & Gabbana to Versace.
Luxottica also operates more than 7,000 retail stores, including
LensCrafters and Sunglass Hut. If you’ve ever purchased a pair
of prescription glasses or sunglasses, chances are you’ve done
business with Luxottica in one form or another. And business
has been very good for Luxottica, earning it some 80 percent of
the global market for glasses.
Much of the remaining 20 percent of the market is in the hands
of Costco and Walmart, two companies that compete on cost
more than fashion. Between high fashion on one hand and low
prices on the other, these three giants seem to have wrapped up
the market.

Neil Blumenthal and David Gilboa’s unconventional ideas
behind the eyewear startup Warby Parker is reflected in the
company’s cheeky communication style.
Wenn Ltd/Alamy
Neil Blumenthal and David Gilboa looked at the data and drew
a different conclusion, however. They believed an
opportunity existed for a company to compete on
fashion and price. Together with University of Pennsylvania
classmates Andrew Hunt and Jeffrey Raider, they crafted a
business model that combines fashion-forward designs and a
brand image that appeals to younger consumers with the
operational efficiency of online commerce. Echoing their
unconventional aspirations, they named the company Warby
Parker after two characters from the works of the Beat
Generation writer Jack Kerouac.
The quest to connect with buyers in a market dominated by a
handful of major corporations gives Warby Parker’s
communication efforts a different look and feel. You won’t find
supermodels posing on yachts in the company’s promotional
campaigns. You’re more likely to find a blog post about what
company employees are reading or a wistful goodbye note to a
summer intern heading back to high school.
The company’s “annual reports” are a great example of how
unconventional thinking can lead to communications that
connect with audiences in fresh ways. All U.S. companies that
sell stock to the public are required to issue annual reports that
disclose a variety of financial details. Most companies expand
on these minimum requirements with glossy, persuasive
messages about their operations, products, and prospects. As a
privately held company (as of 2015), Warby Parker isn’t
required to publish an annual report, but it does so anyway—
sort of. Its annual reports aren’t anything like normal. One year,
the report was an online calendar of major, minor, and just plain
goofy things that happened around the company, from product
launches to a survey about how many pairs of pants employees

wear in a typical month. The following year, it was an
interactive message generator that created personalized reports
for website visitors based on how good or bad their year had
been.
This tradition-defying approach to communication fits the
transparent, social, and conversational style of today’s younger
consumers. And it helps position Warby Parker as a different
kind of company, one more in touch with those customers and
their needs and aspirations. The company won’t dethrone
Luxottica anytime soon, but it has already carved out a nice
chunk of the eyewear market and continues to grow as it heads
toward a possible initial public offering in the stock market. At
that point, it will have to bend to convention just a little, at
least enough to meet government reporting requirements, but it
will surely maintain an offbeat approach in the rest of its
communication efforts.1
www.warbyparker.com
Composing Reports and Proposals
1. 1 Learning Objective Explain how to adapt to your audiences
when writing reports and proposals, and describe the choices
involved in drafting report and proposal content.
Like all successful business communicators, Neil Blumenthal
and David Gilboa (profiled in the chapter-opening On the Job)
know that the writing stage is where you make your ideas from
the planning stage come alive. This chapter builds on the
writing techniques and ideas you learned in Chapter 5, focusing
on issues that are particularly important when preparing longer
message formats, including website and wiki content. In
addition, you’ll get an introduction to creating effective visuals,
which are a vital aspect of many reports and proposals.
As with shorter messages, take a few moments before you start
writing to make sure you’re ready to adapt your approach to
your audience.
Adapting to Your Audience
Successful report writers adapt to their intended audiences by

being sensitive to audience needs, building strong relationships
with the audience, and controlling style and tone.
Long or complex reports demand a lot from readers, making the
“you” attitude especially important.
Chapter 5 introduced four aspects of audience sensitivity, and
all four apply to reports and proposals: adopting the “you”
attitude, maintaining a strong sense of etiquette, emphasizing
the positive, and using bias-free language. Reports and
proposals that are highly technical, complex, or lengthy can put
heavy demands on your readers, so the “you” attitude is
especially important with these long messages.
Many companies have specific guidelines for reports,
particularly those intended for external audiences.
Be sure to plan how you will adapt your style and your language
to reflect the image of your organization. Many companies have
specific guidelines for communicating with public audiences, so
be aware of these preferences before you start writing.
If you know your readers reasonably well and your report is
likely to meet with their approval, you can adopt a fairly
informal tone (as long as that is appropriate in your
organization, of course). A more formal tone is appropriate for
longer reports, especially those that deal with controversial or
complex information. You also need a more formal tone when
your report will be sent to other parts of the organization or to
outsiders, such as customers, suppliers, or members of the
community (see Figure 12.1 on the next page).
Figure 12.1 Choosing the Appropriate Tone for a Report
This report excerpt (part of the executive summary of
the Dietary Guidelines for Americans published by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services) uses a number of techniques to create a
formal tone. This is a formal policy document whose intended
readers are educators, government regulators, and others
charged with using the information to help inform consumers. If
the document had been written with consumers in mind, you can

imagine how the tone might have been lighter and less formal.
Source: Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 published by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
Reports destined for audiences outside the United States often
require a more formal tone to match the expectations of
audiences in many other countries.
Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for
more formality, for two reasons. First, the business environment
outside the United States tends to be more formal in general,
and that formality must be reflected in your communication.
Second, the things you do to make a document informal (such as
using humor and idiomatic language) often translate poorly
from one culture to another, so you risk offending or confusing
your readers.
Drafting Report Content
Your credibility and career advancement are on the line with
every business report you write, so make sure your content is
· Accurate. Double-check your facts and references and check
for typos. If an audience ever gets an inkling that your
information is shaky, they’ll start to view all your work with
skepticism.
· Complete. Tell your readers what they need to know—no
more, no less—and present the information in a way that is
geared to their needs.
· Balanced. Present all sides of the issue fairly and equitably
and include all the essential information, even if some of the
information doesn’t support your line of reasoning. Omitting
relevant information or facts can bias your report.
· Clear and logical. Save your readers time by making sure your
writing is uncluttered, and proceeds logically from point to
point.
· Documented properly. If you use primary and secondary
sources for your report or proposal, be sure to properly
document and give credit to your sources.
Keeping these points in mind will help you draft the most

effective introduction, body, and close for your report.
Report Introduction
Your introduction needs to put the report in context for the
reader, introduce the subject, preview main ideas, and establish
the tone of the document.
As with other written business communications, the text of
reports and proposals has three main sections: an introduction, a
body, and a close. The introduction (or opening) is the first
section in the text of any report or proposal. An effective
introduction accomplishes at least four things:
· Puts the report or proposal in a broader context by tying it to a
problem or an assignment
· Introduces the subject or purpose of the report or proposal and
indicates why the subject is important
· Previews the main ideas and the order in which they’ll be
covered
· Establishes the tone of the document and the writer’s
relationship with the audience
The specific elements you should include in an introduction
depend on the nature and length of the report, the circumstances
under which you’re writing the report, and your relationship
with the audience. An introduction could contain any or all of
the following:
Carefully select the elements to include in your introduction;
strive for a balance between necessary, expected information
and brevity.
· Authorization. When, how, and by whom the report was
authorized; who wrote it; and when it was submitted. This
material is especially important when you don’t accompany the
report with a letter of transmittal (see Chapter 13).
· Problem/opportunity/purpose. The reason the report was
written and what is to be accomplished as a result of your
having written it.
· Scope. What is and what isn’t covered in the report. The scope
also helps with the critical job of setting the audience’s
expectations.

· Background. Any relevant historical conditions or factors that
can help readers grasp the report’s message.
· Sources and methods. The primary and secondary sources of
information used. As appropriate, this section can also explain
how the information was collected.
· Definitions. Definitions of important terms used in the report.
Define any terms that might be unfamiliar to the audience or
any terms you use in an unfamiliar way.
· Limitations. Factors beyond your control that affect the
quality of the report, such as budgets, schedule constraints, or
limited access to information or people. However, don’t
apologize or try to explain away personal shortcomings, such as
your own poor planning.
· Report organization. The organization of the report. This
“road map” helps readers understand what’s coming in the
report and why.
In a brief report, these topics may be discussed in only a
paragraph or two. In a longer formal report, the discussion of
these topics may span several pages and constitute a significant
section within the report.
Report Body
The body of your report presents, analyzes, and interprets the
information you gathered during your investigation.
The report’s body presents, analyzes, and interprets the
information gathered during your investigation and supports the
recommendations or conclusions discussed in your document
(see Figure 12.2). As with the introduction, the body of your
report can require some tough decisions about which elements
to include and how much detail to offer. Here again, your
decisions depend on many variables, including the needs of your
audience. Provide only enough detail in the body to support
your conclusions and recommendations.
Figure 12.2 Effective Problem-Solving Report Focusing on
Recommendations
In this report recommending that her firm expand its website to

full e-commerce capability, the writer uses the body of her
report to provide enough information to support her argument,
without burdening her high-level readership with a lot of
tactical details.
The topics commonly covered in a report body include
The report body should contain only enough information to
convey your message in a convincing fashion; don’t overload
readers with interesting but unnecessary material.
· Explanations of a problem or opportunity
· Facts, statistical evidence, and trends
· Results of studies or investigations
· Discussion and analyses of potential courses of action
· Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a particular
course of action
· Procedures or steps in a process
· Methods and approaches
· Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options
· Conclusions and recommendations
· Supporting reasons for conclusions or recommendations
For analytical reports that use the direct approach, you
generally state your conclusions or recommendations in the
introduction and use the body to provide your evidence and
support. If you’re using the indirect approach, you’re likely to
use the body to discuss your logic and reserve your conclusions
or recommendations until the very end.
Report Close
A report’s close has three important functions:
· Emphasizes the main points of the message
· Summarizes the benefits to the reader if the document
suggests a change or some other course of action
· Brings all the action items together in one place and gives the
details about who should do what, when, where, and how
The close might be the only part of your report some readers
have time for, so make sure it conveys the full weight of your
message.
Research shows that the final section of a report or proposal

leaves a lasting impression. The close gives you one last chance
to make sure your report says what you intended.2
The nature of your close depends on the type of report
(informational or analytical) and the approach (direct or
indirect).
The content and length of your report close depend on your
choice of direct or indirect order, among other variables. If
you’re using the direct approach, you can end with a summary
of key points, listed in the order in which they appear in the
report body. If you’re using the indirect approach, you can use
the close to present your conclusions or recommendations if you
didn’t end the body with them. Just remember that a conclusion
or recommendation isn’t the place to introduce new facts; your
readers should have all the information they need by the time
they reach this point in your report.
If your report is intended to prompt others to action, use the
ending to spell out exactly what should happen next and who is
responsible for each task. If you’ll be taking all the actions
yourself, make sure your readers understand this fact so that
they know what to expect from you.
For long reports, you may need to divide your close into
separate sections for conclusions, recommendations, and
actions.
In a short report, the close may be only a paragraph or two.
However, the close of a long report may have separate sections
for conclusions, recommendations, and actions. Having separate
sections helps your reader locate this material and focus on each
element. Such an arrangement also gives you a final opportunity
to emphasize this important content. If you have multiple
conclusions, recommendations, or actions, you may want to
number and list them as well for easier reference.
Drafting Proposal Content
With proposals, the content for each section is governed by
many variables—the most important of which is the source of
your proposal. If your proposal is unsolicited, you have some
latitude in the scope and organization of content. However, if

you are responding to a request for proposals (RFP), you need
to follow the instructions in the RFP in every detail. Most RFPs
spell out precisely what a proposal must cover and in what order
so that all bids will be similar in form and therefore easier to
compare.
Approach proposals the same way you approach persuasive
messages.
The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade readers to do
something, such as purchase goods or services, fund a project,
or implement a program. Thus, your writing approach for a
proposal is similar to that used for persuasive messages
(see Chapter 10). As with other persuasive messages, the AIDA
model of gaining attention, building interest, creating desire,
and motivating action is an effective structure. Here are key
strategies to strengthen your argument:3
· Demonstrate your knowledge in terms that are meaningful to
the audience.
· Provide concrete information and examples.
· Research the competition so you know what other proposals
your audience is likely to read.
· Prove that your proposal is appropriate and feasible for your
audience.
· Relate your product, service, or personnel to the reader’s exact
needs.
· Produce your proposal in a format and medium that meets
audience expectations.
In addition, make sure your proposal is letter perfect, inviting,
and readable. Readers will prejudge the quality of your
products, services, and capabilities by the quality of the
proposal you submit.
Proposal Introduction
The introduction of a proposal presents and summarizes the
problem or opportunity you want to address, along with your
proposed solution. If your proposal is solicited, follow the
RFP’s instructions about indicating which RFP you’re
responding to. If your proposal is unsolicited, your introduction

should mention any factors that led you to submit your
proposal, such as previous conversations you’ve had with
readers. The following topics are commonly covered in a
proposal introduction:
In an unsolicited proposal, your introduction needs to convince
readers that a problem or an opportunity exists.
· Background or statement of the problem or
opportunity. Briefly review the reader’s situation and establish
the need for action. Remember that readers may not perceive a
problem or an opportunity the same way you do. In unsolicited
proposals in particular, you need to convince them that a
problem or an opportunity exists before you can convince them
to accept your solution.
·
Solution
. Briefly describe the change you propose and highlight your
key selling points and their benefits, showing how your
proposal will help readers meet their business objectives.
· Scope. State the boundaries of the proposal—what you will
and will not do. Sometimes called delimitations.
· Organization. Orient the reader to the remainder of the
proposal and call attention to the major divisions of
information.
In short proposals, your discussion of these topics will be
brief—perhaps only a sentence or two for each. For long, formal
proposals, each topic may warrant separate subheadings and
several paragraphs of discussion.

Proposal Body
Readers understand that a proposal is a persuasive message, so
they’re willing to accommodate a degree of promotional
emphasis—as long as it is focused on their needs.
The proposal’s body gives complete details on the proposed
solution and specifies what the anticipated results will be.
Because a proposal is by definition a persuasive message, your
audience expects you to promote your offering in a confident
but professional manner.
In addition to providing facts and evidence to support your
conclusions, an effective body covers this information:
· Proposed solution. Describe what you have to offer: your
concept, product, or service (see Figure 12.3). Stress the
benefits of your product, service, or investment opportunity that
are relevant to your readers’ needs and point out any advantages
that you have over your competitors.
· The work plan indicates exactly how you will accomplish the
solution presented in the proposal.
Work plan. Explain the steps you’ll take, the methods or
resources you’ll use, and the person(s) responsible. For
solicited proposals, make sure your dates match those specified
in the RFP. Keep in mind that if your proposal is accepted, the
work plan is contractually binding, so don’t promise more than
you can deliver.
· Statement of qualifications. Describe your organization’s

experience, personnel, and facilities—all in relation to reader
needs. You can supplement your qualifications by including a
list of client references, but get permission ahead of time to use
those references.
· Costs. Cover pricing, reimbursable expenses, discounts, and
other financial concerns.
In an informal proposal, discussion of some or all of these
elements may be grouped together and presented in a letter
format, such as in Figure 12.3. In a formal proposal, the
discussion of these elements can be quite long and thorough.
The format may resemble long reports with multiple parts,
as Chapter 13 discusses.
Figure 12.3 Effective Solicited Proposal in Letter Format
This informal solicited proposal in letter format provides the
information the customer needs in order to make a purchase.
Note that by signing the proposal and returning it, the customer
will enter into a legal contract to pay for the services described.
Proposal Close
The close is your last chance to convince the reader of the
merits of your proposal, so make especially sure it’s clear,
compelling, and audience oriented.
The final section of a proposal generally summarizes your key
points, emphasizes the benefits readers will get from your
solution, and asks for a decision from the reader. The close is

your last opportunity to persuade readers to accept your
proposal. In both formal and informal proposals, make this
section relatively brief, assertive (but not brash or abrupt), and
confident.
Helping Report Readers Find Their Way
Help your audiences navigate through your reports by providing
clear directions to key pieces of content.
Today’s time-pressed readers want to browse reports and
quickly find information of interest. To help them find what
they’re looking for and stay on track as they navigate through
your documents, learn to make good use of headings and links,
smooth transitions, and previews and reviews:
· Headings. Readers should be able to follow the structure of
your document and pick up the key points of your message from
the headings and subheadings. (See Chapter 6 for a review of
what makes an effective heading.) Follow a simple, consistent
arrangement that clearly distinguishes levels.
· Transitions. Chapter 5 defines transitions as words or phrases
that tie ideas together and show how one thought is related to
another. In a long report, an entire paragraph might be used to
highlight transitions from one section to the next.
· Previews help readers prepare for upcoming information, and
reviews help them verify and clarify what they’ve just read.
Previews and reviews. Preview sections introduce important or
complex topics by helping readers get ready for new

information. Review sections come after a body of material and
summarize key points to help readers absorb the information
just read.
To review the tasks discussed in this section, see “Checklist:
Composing Business Reports and Proposals.”
Checklist ✔ Composing Business Reports and Proposals
A. Review and fine-tune your outline.
· Match your parallel headings to the tone of your report or
proposal.
· Understand how the introduction, body, and close work
together to convey your message.
B. Draft report content.
· Use the introduction to establish the purpose, scope, and
organization of your report or proposal.
· Use the body to present and interpret the information you
gathered.
· Use the close to summarize major points, discuss conclusions,
or make recommendations.
C. Draft proposal content.
· Use the introduction to discuss the background or problem,
your solution, the scope, and organization.
· Use the body to persuasively explain the benefits of your
proposed approach.
· Use the close to emphasize reader benefits and summarize the
merits of your approach.

D. Help readers find their way.
· Provide headings to improve readability and clarify the
framework of your ideas.
· Use hyperlinks online to allow readers to jump from section to
section.
· Create transitions that tie together ideas and show how one
thought relates to another.
· Preview important topics to help readers get ready for new
information.
· Review key information to help readers absorb details and
keep the big picture in mind.
Using Technology to Craft Reports and Proposals
Look for ways to use technology to reduce the mechanical work
involved in writing long reports.
Writing lengthy reports and proposals can be a huge task, so be
sure to take advantage of technological tools to help throughout
the process. Be sure to explore the advantages of these
capabilities:
· Linked and embedded documents. In many reports and
proposals, you’ll include graphics, spreadsheets, databases, and
other elements produced in other software programs. Make sure
you know how your software handles the files. For instance, in
Microsoft Office, linking to a file maintains a live connection to
it, so changes in the original file will show up in the document
you’re working on. However, embedding a file breaks that link,

so any subsequent changes made to the original will not
automatically appear in the new document.
· Electronic forms. For recurring reports such as sales reports
and compliance reports, consider creating a document that
uses form tools such as text boxes (in which users can type new
text) and check boxes (which can be used to select from a set of
predetermined choices).
· Electronic documents. Portable document format (PDF) files
have become a universal replacement for printed reports and
proposals. Using Adobe Acrobat or similar products, you can
quickly convert reports and proposals to PDF files that are easy
to share electronically.
· Multimedia documents. Video clips, animation, presentation
software slides, screencasts (recordings of on-screen activity),
and other media elements can enhance the communication and
persuasion powers of the written word.
· Proposal-writing software. Proposal-writing software can
automatically personalize proposals, ensure proper structure
(making sure you don’t forget any sections, for instance),
organize storage of all your boilerplate text, integrate contact
information from sales databases, scan RFPs to identify
questions (and even assign them to content experts), and fill in
preliminary answers to common questions from a centralized
knowledge base.4

Source Evaluation Matrix
Complete the table for each source you use. Add a column to
include the information from any additional source.
Question
Source 1
Source 2
What is the name of the source?
Is the author/publication biased? How do you know?
Is this a reliable source? Explain.
Is this source credible? Explain.
How is this source appropriate for your topic?

How will this source support your topic?

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