Chapter 1

1
C H A P T E R

AN
INTRODUCTION
T O TA X AT I O N

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to

1 Discuss the history of taxation in the United States
2 Differentiate between the three types of tax rate structures
3 Describe the various types of taxes
4 Discuss what constitutes a “good” tax structure, the objectives of the
federal income tax law, and recent tax reform proposals
5 Describe the tax entities in the federal income tax system
6 Identify the various tax law sources and understand their implications
for tax practice
7 Describe the legislative process for the enactment of the tax law
8 Describe the administrative procedures under the tax law
9 Describe the components of a tax practice and understand the
importance of computer applications in taxation

1-1

1-2 Individuals ▼ Chapter 1

CHAPTER OUTLINE Federal income taxes have a significant effect on business, investor, and personal decisions
History of Taxation in the United in the United States. Because tax rates can be as high as 35% on corporations and indi-
States...1-2 viduals, virtually every transaction is impacted by income taxes. The following examples
Types of Tax Rate Structures...1-4 illustrate the impact of the tax law on various decisions in our society:
Other Types of Taxes...1-7
Criteria for a Tax Structure...1-11 Because of the deductibility of mortgage interest and real estate taxes, an individual
Objectives of the Federal Income may decide to purchase a home rather than to continue to rent an apartment.
Tax Law...1-14
An investor may decide to delay selling some stock because of the significant taxes that
Entities in the Federal Income Tax
System...1-16 may result from the sale.
Tax Law Sources...1-24 A corporation may get a larger tax deduction if it leases property rather than purchas-
Enactment of a Tax Law...1-24 ing the property.
Administration of the Tax Law
and Tax Practice Issues...1-26 The purpose of this text is to provide an introduction to the study of federal income
Components of a Tax taxation. However, before discussing the specifics of the U.S. federal income tax law, it is
Practice...1-29
helpful to have a broad conceptual understanding of the taxation process. This chapter
Computer Applications in Tax
Practice...1-31 provides an overview of the following topics:
Historical developments of the federal tax system
KEY POINT Types of taxes levied and structural considerations
In many situations, the use of the Objectives of the tax law, including a discussion of recent tax reform proposals
tax laws to influence human
behavior is deliberate. As will be Taxpaying entities in the federal income tax system
seen later in this chapter, tax laws
are often used to achieve social Tax law sources and the legislative process
and economic objectives.
Internal Revenue Service (IRS) collection, examination, and appeals processes
The nature of tax practice, including computer applications and tax research

HI S T O RY O F TA X AT I O N
I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S
E A R LY P E R I O D S
OBJECTIVE 1 The federal income tax is the dominant form of taxation in the United States. In addition,
Discuss the history of most states and some cities and counties also impose an income tax. Both corporations
taxation in the United and individuals are subject to such taxes.
States Before 1913 (the date of enactment of the modern-day federal income tax), the federal
government relied predominantly on customs duties and excise taxes to finance its opera-
tions. The first federal income tax on individuals was enacted in 1861 to finance the Civil
War but was repealed after the war. The federal income tax was reinstated in 1894, how-
HISTORICAL NOTE ever, that tax was challenged in the courts because the U.S. Constitution required that an
The reinstatement of the income income tax be apportioned among the states in proportion to their populations. This type
tax in 1894 was the subject of of tax system, which would be both impractical and difficult to administer, would mean
heated political controversy. In
general, the representatives in
that different tax rates would apply to individual taxpayers depending on their states of
Congress from the agricultural residence.
South and West favored the In 1895, the Supreme Court ruled that the tax was in violation of the U.S.
income tax in lieu of customs
duties. Representatives from the Constitution.1 Therefore, it was necessary to amend the U.S. Constitution to permit the
industrial eastern states were passage of a federal income tax law. This was accomplished by the Sixteenth Amendment,
against the income tax and
favored protective tariff which was ratified in 1913. The Sixteenth Amendment, while being an extraordinarily
legislation. important amendment, consists of one sentence.

Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States
The Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever
source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any
census or enumeration.

1 Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co., 3 AFTR 2602 (USSC, 1895). Note, was held to be constitutional because it was treated as an excise tax. See Flint
however, that a federal income tax on corporations that was enacted in 1909 v. Stone Tracy Co., 3 AFTR 2834 (USSC, 1911).

An Introduction to Taxation ▼ Individuals 1-3

REVENUE ACTS FROM 1913 TO THE PRESENT
HISTORICAL NOTE The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed a flat 1% tax (with no exemptions) on a corporation’s
The Revenue Act of 1913 con- net income. The rate varied from 1% to 7% for individuals, depending on the individual’s
tained sixteen pages. income level. However, very few individuals paid federal income taxes because a $3,000
personal exemption ($4,000 for married individuals) was permitted as an offset to taxable
income. These amounts were greater than the incomes of most individuals in 1913.
HISTORICAL NOTE Various amendments to the original law were passed between 1913 and 1939 as separate
Before 1939, the tax laws were revenue acts. For example, a deduction for dependency exemptions was provided in 1917. In
contained in the current revenue 1939, the separate revenue acts were codified into the Internal Revenue Code of 1939. A sim-
act, a reenactment of a prior rev-
enue act plus amendments. In ilar codification was accomplished in 1954. The 1954 codification, which was known as the
1939, a permanent tax code was Internal Revenue Code of 1954, included the elimination of many “deadwood” provisions, a
established; it was revised in 1954
and 1986. rearrangement and clarification of numerous code sections, and the addition of major tax
law changes. Whenever changes to the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) are made, the old lan-
guage is deleted and the new language added. Thus, the statutes are organized as a single doc-
ument, and a tax advisor does not have to read through the applicable parts of all previous
tax bills to find the most current law. In 1986, major changes were made to the tax law, and
the basic tax law was redesignated as the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.
The federal income tax became a “mass tax” on individuals during the early 1940s.
This change was deemed necessary to finance the revenue needs of the federal government
during World War II. In 1939, less than 6% of the U.S. population was subject to the fed-
eral income tax; by 1945, 74% of the population was taxed.2 To accommodate the broad-
ened tax base and to avoid significant tax collection problems, Congress enacted pay-as-
you-go withholding in 1943.
A major characteristic of the federal income tax since its inception to today is the manner
in which the tax law is changed or modified. The federal income tax is changed on an incre-
mental basis rather than a complete revision basis. Under so-called incrementalism, when a
change in the tax law is deemed necessary by Congress, the entire law is not changed, but
specific provisions of the tax law are added, changed, or deleted on an incremental basis.
Thus, the federal income tax has been referred to as a “quiltwork” of tax laws, referring to
the patchwork nature of the law. Without question, one of the principal reasons for the com-
plexity of the federal income tax today is the incremental nature of tax legislation.

ADDITIONAL REVENUE SOURCES
COMMENT As mentioned earlier, the largest source of federal revenues is individual income taxes. Other
In 2004, over 132 million individ- major revenue sources include Social Security (FICA) taxes and corporate income taxes (see
ual income tax returns were filed,
and collections from individuals Table I:1-1). Two notable trends from Table I:1-1 are (1) the gradual increase in social secu-
totaled $832 billion. rity taxes from 1965 to 2006 and (2) the gradual decrease in corporate income taxes for the
same period. Individual income taxes have remained fairly stable during the past 40 years.

TYPICAL TABLE I:1-1
MISCONCEPTION Breakdown of Federal Revenues
It is often assumed that the tax
revenue from corporation income
taxes is the largest source of tax 1965 1975 1994 2006
revenue. However, the revenue
generated from this tax only rep-
resents approximately 13% of
total federal revenues in 2005.
Individual income taxes 43% 45% 43% 44%
Social insurance taxes and contribution 20 32 37 35
Corporation income taxes 23 15 11 14
Other 14 8 9 7
Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Indicators (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967,
1977, 2006).

2 Richard Goode, The Individual Income Tax (Washington, DC: The

Brookings Institution, 1964), pp. 2–4.


TY P E S
O F TA X R AT E
STRUCTURES
OBJECTIVE 2 THE STRUCTURE OF INDIVIDUAL
I N C O M E TA X R AT E S
Differentiate between the Virtually all tax structures are comprised of two basic parts: the tax base and the tax rate.
three types of tax rate The tax base is the amount to which the tax rate is applied to determine the tax due. For
structures example, an individual’s tax base for the federal income tax is taxable income, as defined
and determined by the income tax law. Similarly, the tax base for the property tax is gen-
erally the fair market value of property subject to the tax. The tax rate is merely the per-
centage rate applied to the tax base.
ADDITIONAL Tax rates may be progressive, proportional, or regressive. A progressive rate structure
COMMENT is one where the rate of tax increases as the tax base increases. The most notable tax that
In the 1950s, the top marginal tax incorporates a progressive rate structure is the federal income tax. Thus, as a taxpayer’s
rate for individual taxpayers
reached 92%. This astonishingly taxable income increases, a progressively higher rate of tax is applied. For 2007, the fed-
high rate only applied to taxpay- eral income tax rates for individuals begin at 10% and increase to 15%, 25%, 28%,
ers with very high taxable
incomes but still is an extremely 33%, and 35% as a taxpayer’s taxable income increases.3 Examples I:1-1 and I:1-2 show
confiscatory tax rate. how the progressive rate structure of the federal income tax operates.

EXAMPLE I:1-1 Alice, who is single, has $30,000 taxable income in 2007. Her federal income taxes for the year
are $4,109 as the first $7,825 of taxable income is taxed at 10% and the remaining $22,175 at
15%. (For tax rates, see the inside front cover.)
Allen, who is also single, has taxable income of $60,000. A 10% rate applies to the first
$7,825 of taxable income, 15% on the next $24,025, and a 25% rate applies to the taxable
income over $31,850. Thus, Allen’s total tax is $11,424 [(0.10 $7,825) (0.15 $24,025)
(0.25 $28,150)].
If Allen’s taxable income is $120,000, a 28% rate applies to $42,900 of his taxable income
($120,000 $77,100) because the 28% rate applies to taxable income above $77,100 for a sin-
gle individual and his total tax for the year is $27,711. Thus, the tax rates are progressive
because the rate of tax increases as a taxpayer’s taxable income increases.

Notice in Example I:1-1 that taxable income has doubled in size in the three cases, but
the income taxes have more than doubled (i.e., $4,109 to $11,424 to $27,711). This
demonstrates how a progressive rate structure operates.

EXAMPLE I:1-2 Assume the same facts as in Example I:1-1 except that Alice has taxable income of $180,000. Of
Alice’s taxable income, $19,150 ($180,000 $160,850) is subject to the 33% rate. Alternatively,
if Allen has taxable income of $400,000, $50,300 ($400,000 $349,700) is subject to the top
marginal rate of 35%.

A proportional tax rate, sometimes called a flat tax, is one where the rate of tax is the
same for all taxpayers, regardless of the level of their tax base. This type of tax rate is gen-
erally used for real estate taxes, state and local sales taxes, personal property taxes, cus-
toms duties, and excise taxes. A flat tax has been the subject of considerable discussion in
the last couple of years and promises to be a highly controversial topic as the debate on
federal income tax reform continues into the future.

EXAMPLE I:1-3 Assume the same facts as in Example I:1-1, except that a 17% tax rate applies to all amounts of
taxable income. Based on the assumed flat tax rate structure, Alice’s federal income tax is
$5,100 on $30,000 of taxable income; Allen’s tax is $10,200 on $60,000 of taxable income and
$20,400 on $120,000 of taxable income. The tax rate is proportional because the 17% rate
applies to both taxpayers without regard to their income level. As you can see, a proportional
tax rate results in substantially lower taxes for higher income taxpayers.4

3 See the inside front cover for the 2007 tax rates and Chapter I:2 for a dis- 4 This example assumes the same tax base (taxable income) for the flat tax as

cussion of the computation procedures. 2006 rate schedules and tax tables with the current federal tax. Most flat tax proposals allow only a few deduc-
are located immediately before Appendix A. tions and, therefore, would generate higher taxes than in the example.


SELF-STUDY A regressive tax rate decreases with an increase in the tax base (e.g., income).
QUESTION Regressive taxes, while not consistent with the fairness of the income tax,5 are found in
Assume a tax system with a tax of the United States. The Social Security (FICA) tax is regressive because a fixed rate of tax
$1,000 on taxable income of
$10,000 and a $1,500 tax on tax- of 7.65% for both the employer and employee is levied up to a ceiling amount of $97,500
able income of $20,000. Is the tax for 2007 ($94,200 in 2006). The employer and employee’s FICA tax rate is only 1.45%
rate system progressive, propor-
tional, or regressive? for wages earned in excess of the ceiling amount. The sales tax, which is levied by many
states, is also regressive when measured against the income base.
ANSWER
This tax system is regressive. Even T H E S T R U C T U R E O F C O R P O R AT E TA X R AT E S
though the amount of tax has Corporations are separate entities and are subject to income tax. The federal corporate
increased, the rate of taxation has
decreased from 10% on the first income tax reflects a stair-step pattern of progression that tends to benefit small corpora-
$10,000 of taxable income to 5% tions. The corporate rates, which have not changed for several years, are as follows:6
on the second $10,000 of taxable
income. Taxable Income7 Tax
First $50,000 15% of taxable income
Over $50,000 but not over $75,000 $7,500 25% of taxable income over
$50,000
$75,000
$100,000
Over $335,000 34% of taxable income
Over $10,000,000 but not over $3,400,000 35% of taxable income
$15,000,000 over $10,000,000
Over $15,000,000 but not over $5,150,000 38% over $15,000,000
$18,333,333
Over $18,333,333 35% of taxable income

M A R G I N A L , AV E R A G E , A N D
E F F E C T I V E TA X R AT E S F O R TA X PAY E R S
A taxpayer’s marginal tax rate is the tax rate applied to an incremental amount of taxable
income that is added to the tax base. The marginal tax rate concept is useful for planning
because it measures the tax effect of a proposed transaction.

EXAMPLE I:1-4 Tania, who is single, is considering the purchase of a personal residence that will provide a
$20,000 tax deduction for interest expense and real estate taxes in 2007. Tania’s taxable income
would be reduced from $120,000 to $100,000 if she purchases the residence. Because a 28% tax
rate applies to taxable income from $100,000 to $120,000, Tania’s marginal tax rate is 28%.
Thus, Tania’s tax savings from purchasing the personal residence would be $5,600 (0.28
$20,000).

ADDITIONAL While the marginal tax rate measures the tax rate applicable to the next $1 of income
COMMENT or deduction for a taxpayer, there are two other tax rates that are used primarily by tax
One method of calculating eco- policymakers: average tax rate and effective tax rate. The average tax rate is computed by
nomic income is to start with
adjusted gross income (AGI), add dividing the total tax liability by the amount of taxable income. This represents the average
back items of excludible income, rate of tax for each dollar of taxable income. For example, a single taxpayer with taxable
such as tax-exempt bond interest,
proceeds of life insurance policies,
income of $360,000 in 2007 would incur a total tax liability of $105,074. The taxpayer’s
etc., and then deduct certain marginal tax rate is 35%, but his average tax rate is 29.2% ($105,074/$360,000).
nondeductible business expenses, The effective tax rate is the total tax liability divided by total economic income. Total
such as life insurance premiums,
penalties and fines, etc. economic income includes all types of economic income that a taxpayer has for the year.
Thus, economic income is much broader than taxable income and includes most types of

5 See the discussion of equity and fairness later in this chapter. equals 34% of taxable income. A 35% tax rate applies to taxable income in
6 For C corporations with taxable income over $100,000, the lower rates of excess of $10 million. For corporations with taxable income in excess of $15
tax on the first $75,000 of income are gradually phased out by applying a million, a 3 percentage-point-surtax applies to taxable income from $15 mil-
5-percentage-point surtax on taxable income from $100,000 to $335,000 so lion to $18,333,333 to eliminate the lower 34% rate that applies to the first
that benefits of the favorable rates are eliminated once a corporation’s taxable $10 million of taxable income.
income reaches $335,000. Once taxable income exceeds $335,000 the tax 7 Also see the inside back cover for the 2007 corporation income tax rates.


excludible income, such as tax-exempt bond interest, and generally permits business
deductions but not personal-type deductions. It should be pointed out that economic
income is not statutorily defined and experts may disagree on a precise calculation. The
basic purpose of calculating the effective tax rate is to provide a broad measure of tax-
payers’ ability to pay taxes. Accordingly, the effective tax rate mainly is used by tax poli-
cymakers to determine the fairness of the income tax system.

EXAMPLE I:1-5 Amelia, who is single, has adjusted gross income of $140,000 and economic income of $175,000
in 2007. The difference is attributable to $35,000 of tax-exempt bond interest. If Amelia has
deductions of $30,000, then her taxable income is $110,000, and her total tax is $24,911.
Her average tax rate is 22.64% ($24,911 $110,000). Amelia’s effective tax rate is 14.23%
($24,911 $175,000). Amelia’s effective tax rate is considerably lower than her average tax rate
because of her substantial amount of tax-exempt income.

STOP & THINK Question: Gwen, a single taxpayer, has seen her income climb to $200,000 in the current
year. She wants a tax planner to help her reduce her tax liability. In planning for tax
clients, tax professionals almost exclusively use the marginal tax rate in their analysis
rather than the average tax rate. Why is the marginal tax rate much more important in the
tax planning process than the average tax rate?
Solution: Because tax planning is done at the margin. A single taxpayer who has taxable
income of $200,000 has a marginal tax rate of 33% (at 2007 rates), but an average tax
rate of 26.03%, computed as follows:
Taxable income $200,000

Tax on first $160,850 of taxable income $39,149
Remaining taxable income $39,150
Times: Marginal tax rate 0.33 12,920
Total tax liability $ 52,069

Total tax $ 52,069
Average tax rate 26.03%
Taxable income $200,000

If a tax planner could reduce Gwen’s taxable income by $10,000, Gwen’s tax liability
would decrease by $3,333 ($10,000 0.33). When the taxpayer wants to know how
much she can save through tax planning, the appropriate marginal tax rate yields the
answer.

Overall, effective federal income tax rates for individuals have decreased slightly during
the period 1993–2003,8 amounting to 8.5% in 2003 as compared with 10.0% in 1993.
For the highest 20% of households, the effective individual income tax rate declined to
ADDITIONAL 13.9% in 2003 from 14.9% in 1993.
COMMENT
In the determination of tax rates,
one should consider the incidence
D E T E R M I N AT I O N O F TA X A B L E
of taxation that involves the issue I N C O M E A N D TA X D U E
of who really bears the burden of As will be discussed in later chapters, the federal income taxes imposed on all taxpayers
the tax. If a city raises the real
property tax but landlords simply (individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts) are based on the determination of taxable
raise rents to pass on the higher income. In general, taxable income is computed as follows:
taxes, the tax burden is shifted to
their tenants. The concept has Total income (income from whatever source derived) $xxx
important implications in deter-
mining any kind of average or Minus: Exclusions (specifically defined items, such as
effective tax rate. tax-exempt bond interest) (xx)

8 Congressional Budget Office, Historical Effective Federal Tax Rates: 1979
to 2003 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December,
2005), p. 4.


Gross income $xxx
Minus: Deductions (business expenses and itemized deductions) (xx)
Exemptions (not applicable for corporations) (xx)
Taxable income $xxx
Times: Applicable tax rate .xx
Income tax before credits $xxx
Minus: Tax credits (xx)
Total tax liability $xxx
Minus: Prepayments (xx)
Balance due or refund $xxx

Each different type of taxpayer (individuals, corporations, etc.) computes taxable
income in a slightly different manner, but all use the general framework above. An intro-
ductory discussion of the various types of taxpayers is provided later in this chapter. More
detailed discussions of individual taxpayers (Chapter I:2) and corporation taxpayers
(Chapter I:16) are examined in this Individuals book. Corporations, estates, and trusts
are further examined in Prentice Hall’s Federal Taxation: Corporations, Partnerships,
Estates, and Trusts.

OT H E R T Y P E S O F TA X E S
S TAT E A N D L O C A L I N C O M E A N D
F R A N C H I S E TA X E S
OBJECTIVE 3 In addition to federal income taxes, many states and local jurisdictions impose income
taxes on individuals and businesses. These state and local taxes have gradually increased
Describe the various types over the years and currently represent a significant source of revenue for state and local
of taxes governments but also represent a significant tax burden on taxpayers.
State and local income taxes vary greatly in both form and rates.9 Only seven states do
not impose an individual income tax.10 In most instances, state income tax rates are mildly
progressive and are based on an individual’s federal adjusted gross income (AGI), with
minor adjustments.11 For example, a typical adjustment to a state income tax return is
interest income on federal government bonds, which is subject to tax on the federal return
but is generally not subject to state income taxes. Some states also allow a deduction for
federal income taxes in the computation of taxable income for state income tax purposes.
ADDITIONAL States imposing a state income tax generally require the withholding of state income
COMMENT taxes and have established mandatory estimated tax payment procedures. The due date
State income tax rates for individ- for filing state income tax returns generally coincides with the due date for the federal
uals have increased significantly
in the past twenty years. Thirty- income tax returns (e.g., the fifteenth day of the fourth month following the close of the
three states now have marginal tax year for individuals).
tax rates of 6% or higher.
Most states impose a corporate income tax, although in some instances the tax is
called a franchise tax. Franchise taxes usually are based on a weighted-average formula
consisting of net worth, income, and sales.

W E A LT H T R A N S F E R TA X E S
U.S. citizens are subject to taxation on certain transfers of property to another person. The
tax law provides a unified transfer tax system that imposes a single tax on transfers of prop-
erty taking place during an individual’s lifetime (gifts) and at death (estates). (See the inside
back cover of the text for the transfer tax rate schedules.) Formerly, the gift and estate tax
laws were separate and distinct. The federal estate tax was initially enacted in 1916. The
original gift tax law dates back to 1932. The gift tax was originally imposed to prevent
widespread avoidance of the estate tax (e.g., taxpayers could make tax-free gifts of property

9 For a thorough discussion of state and local taxes, see the chapter entitled ton, and Wyoming. New Hampshire has an income tax that is levied only on
Multistate Income Taxation that accompanies this textbook in electronic form on dividend and interest income and Tennessee’s income tax applies only to
the Prentice Hall Federal Taxation 2007 Web page at www.prenhall.com/phtax. income from stocks and bonds.
10 These states are Alaska, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Washing- 11 See Chapter I:2 for a discussion of the AGI computation.


before their death). Both the gift and estate taxes are wealth transfer taxes levied on the
transfer of property and are based on the fair market value (FMV) of the transferred prop-
erty on the date of the transfer. Following are brief descriptions of the gift tax and estate tax.

KEY POINT THE FEDERAL GIFT TAX. The gift tax is an excise tax that is imposed on the donor
The $12,000 annual exclusion is (not the donee) for transfers of property that are considered to be a taxable gift. A gift,
an important tax-planning tool generally speaking, is a transfer made gratuitously and with donative intent. However, the
for wealthy parents who want to
transfer assets to their children gift tax law has expanded the definition to include transfers that are not supported by full
and thereby minimize their gift and adequate consideration.12 To arrive at the amount of taxable gifts for the current
and estate taxes. A husband and
wife who have three children year, a $12,000 annual exclusion is allowed per donee.13 In addition, an unlimited mari-
could transfer a maximum of tal deduction is allowed for transfers between spouses.14 The formula for computing the
$72,000 [($12,000 2) 3] to
their children each year without
gift tax is as follows:
incurring any gift tax.
FMV of all gifts made in the current year $x,xxx
Minus: Annual donee exclusions ($12,000 per donee) $xx
Marital deduction for gifts to spouse xx
Charitable contribution deduction xx (xxx)
Plus: Taxable gifts for all prior years xxx
Cumulative taxable gifts (tax base) $x,xxx
Times: Unified transfer tax rates .xx
Tentative tax on gift tax base $ xxx
Minus: Unified transfer taxes paid in prior years (xx)
Unified credit (xx)
Unified transfer tax (gift tax) due in the current year $ xx

ADDITIONAL Note that the gift tax is cumulative over the taxpayer’s lifetime (i.e., the tax calculation for
COMMENT the current year includes the taxable gifts made in prior years). The detailed tax rules
The gift tax was enacted to make relating to the gift tax are covered in Chapter C:12 in both Prentice Hall’s Federal
the estate tax more effective.
Without a gift tax, estate taxes Taxation: Corporations, Partnerships, Estates, and Trusts and the Comprehensive vol-
could be easily avoided by large ume. The following general concepts and rules for the federal gift tax are presented as
gifts made before death.
background material for other chapters of this text dealing with individual taxpayers:
Gifts between spouses are exempted from the gift tax due to the operation of an unlim-
ited marital deduction.
The primary liability for payment of the gift tax is imposed on the donor. The donee is
contingently liable for payment of the gift tax in the event of nonpayment by the donor.
A donor is permitted a $12,000 annual exclusion for gifts of a present interest to each
donee.15
Charitable contributions are effectively exempted from the gift tax because an unlim-
ited deduction is allowed.
The tax basis of the property to the donee is generally the donor’s cost. It is the lesser
of the donor’s cost and the property’s FMV on the date of the gift if the property is sold
by the donee at a loss. (See Chapter I:5 for a discussion of the gift tax basis rules.)
A unified tax credit equivalent to a $1,000,000 deduction is available to offset any gift
tax on taxable gifts that exceed the $12,000 annual exclusion.16

EXAMPLE I:1-6 Antonio makes the following gifts in the year 2007:
$25,000 cash gift to his wife
$15,000 contribution to the United Way

12 Sec. 2512(b). future interest comes into being at some future date (e.g., property is transferred
13 Sec. 2503(b). The annual exclusion for gift tax purposes had been $10,000 by gift to a trust in which the donee is not entitled to the income from the prop-
for many years. However, for 2002–2005, the inflation adjustment increased erty until the donor dies) and is not eligible for the $12,000 annual exclusion.
the exclusion to $11,000. For 2006 and later years, the current exclusion has 16 The applicable exclusion amount was $675,000 in 2000 and 2001 and was

been increased to $12,000. increased to the current $1,000,000 in 2002 and later years. For further details,
14 Sec. 2523(a). see Prentice Hall’s Federal Taxation: Corporations, Partnerships, Estates and
15 A gift of a present interest is an interest that is already in existence and the Trusts, 2008 Edition, Chapters C:12 and C:13.
donee is currently entitled to receive the income from the property. A gift of a


Gift of a personal automobile valued at $25,000 to his adult son
Gift of a personal computer valued at $4,000 to a friend
The $25,000 gift to his wife is not taxed because of a $12,000 annual exclusion and a $14,000
tax exemption for transfers to spouses (i.e., the marital deduction). The $15,000 contribution to
the United Way is also not taxed because of the unlimited deduction for charitable contribu-
tions. The $25,000 gift Antonio made to his son is reduced by the $12,000 annual exclusion to
each donee, leaving a $13,000 taxable gift.17 The $4,000 gift to the friend is not taxed because
of the annual exclusion of up to $12,000 in gifts to a donee in a tax year. Thus, total taxable
gifts for the current year subject to the unified transfer tax are $13,000.

STOP & THINK Question: An important but frequently overlooked aspect of gift taxes is the interaction
of gift taxes and income taxes. In many cases, gifts are made primarily for income tax
purposes. Why would a gift be made for income tax purposes?
Solution: Gifts are frequently made to shift income from one family member to another
family member who is in a lower marginal tax bracket. For example, assume Fran and Jan
are married, have one 15-year-old son, earn $400,000 per year from their business, and
generate $100,000 per year in dividends and interest from a substantial portfolio of
stocks and bonds. With such a high level of income, Fran and Jan are in the 35% marginal
tax bracket. If they make a gift of some of the stocks and bonds to their son, the dividends
and interest attributable to the gift are taxed to the son at his marginal tax rate (maybe
10% or 15%). If the son’s marginal tax rate is lower than 35%, the family unit reduces its
overall income taxes.

THE FEDERAL ESTATE TAX. The federal estate tax is part of the unified transfer tax
system that is based on the total property transfers an individual makes both during his or
her lifetime and at death.

EXAMPLE I:1-7 Amy dies during the current year. The formula for computing the estate tax on Amy’s estate is
as follows:
TYPICAL Gross estate (FMV of all property owned by the decedent at the date of death) $xxx,xxx
MISCONCEPTION Minus: Deductions for funeral and administration expenses, debts of the
It is sometimes thought that the decedent, charitable contributions, and the marital deduction for
federal estate tax raises signifi- property transferred to a spouse (x,xxx)
cant amounts of revenue, but it
has not been a significant rev- Taxable estate $ x,xxx
enue producer since World War II. Plus: Taxable gifts made after 1976 xx
Only 63,000 estate tax returns
were filed in 2004. Tax base $ x,xxx
Times: Unified transfer tax rate(s) .xx
Tentative tax on estate tax base $ xxx
Minus: Tax credits (e.g., the unified tax credit equivalent to a (xx)
$2,000,000 deduction in 2006, 2007, and 2008
($1,500,000 in 2004 and 2005)
Gift taxes paid after 1976 (xx)
Unified transfer tax (estate tax) due $ xx

The estate tax rules are discussed in more detail in Chapter C:13 in Prentice Hall’s
Federal Taxation: Corporations, Partnerships, Estates, and Trusts and in the Compre-
hensive volume. The following general rules are provided as background material for sub-
sequent chapters of this text dealing with individual taxpayers:
The decedent’s property is valued at its FMV on the date of death unless the alternative
valuation date (six months after the date of death) is elected. The alternative valuation
date may be elected only if the aggregate value of the gross estate decreases during the

17 This example assumes that the automobile is a gift rather than an obliga-
by both spouses (a gift-splitting election). In such event, donee exclusions of
tion of support under state law and also assumes that Antonio’s wife does not $24,000 (2 $12,000) would be available, resulting in a taxable gift of only
join with Antonio in electing to treat the gift to the son as having been made $1,000.


six-month period following the date of death and the election results in a lower estate
tax liability.
The basis of the property received by the estate and by the decedent’s heirs is the prop-
erty’s FMV on the date of death (or the alternate valuation date if it is elected).
Property transferred to the decedent’s spouse is exempt from the estate tax because of
the estate tax marital deduction provision.

EXAMPLE I:1-8 Barry died in 2007, leaving a $2,500,000 gross estate. In years prior to 2007 (but after 1976),
Barry had made taxable gifts of $250,000. Of the $2,500,000 gross estate, one-half of the estate
was transferred to his wife, administrative and funeral expenses are $30,000, Barry had debts of
$170,000, and the remainder of the estate was transferred to his children. The estate tax due is
computed as follows:
Gross estate $2,500,000
Minus: Marital deduction (1,250,000)
Funeral and administrative expenses (30,000)
Decedent’s debts (170,000)
Taxable estate $1,050,000
Plus: Taxable gifts made after 1976 250,000
Tax base $1,300,000

Tentative tax on estate tax base $ 469,800a
Minus: Tax credits (unified tax credit—see inside back cover for table) (780,800)
Unified transfer tax due $ —0—
a$448,300 (0.43 $50,000)

Because of the generous credit and deduction provisions (e.g., the unified tax credit and
the unlimited marital deduction), few estates are required to pay estate taxes. As can be
seen above, the gross estate of the decedent was $2.5 million but no estate taxes were due
primarily because of the large marital deduction and the unified credit. However, estate
taxes rise quickly as is demonstrated below in Example I:1-9.

EXAMPLE I:1-9 Assume the same facts for Barry as in Example I:1-8 except that Barry’s gross estate is $5,000,000
rather than $2,500,000. The estate tax due is computed as follows:
Gross estate $5,000,000
Minus: Marital deduction (2,500,000)
Funeral and administrative expenses (30,000)
Decedent’s debts (170,000)
Taxable estate $2,300,000
Plus: Taxable gifts made after 1976 250,000
Tax base $2,550,000

Tentative tax on estate tax base $1,028,300b
Minus: Tax credits (unified tax credit) (780,800)
Unified transfer tax due $ 247,500
b$555,800 (0.45 $1,050,000)

The estate tax (not the gift tax) is scheduled to be repealed in 2010. However, pursuant to
so-called sunset provisions, the estate tax will be reinstated on January 1, 2011, unless
Congress enacts specific legislation. The uncertainty of the estate tax is causing consider-
able anxiety to taxpayers in trying to plan their estates.
ADDITIONAL
COMMENT
Proposals to decrease reliance on
O T H E R T Y P E S O F TA X E S
the federal income tax have Although this text focuses primarily on the federal income tax, some mention should be
focused primarily on consumption made of the following other types of taxes levied by federal, state, and local governments.
taxes, such as a national sales tax
or a value-added tax. A value- Property taxes are based on the value of a taxpayer’s property, which may include both
added tax basically is a sales tax
levied at each stage of production
real estate and personal property. Real estate taxes are a major source of revenue for
on the “value added.” local governments. In addition, some state and local governments levy a personal


property tax on intangibles such as securities and tangible personal property (e.g., the
value of a personal automobile).
Federal excise taxes and customs duties on imported goods have declined in relative
importance over the years but remain significant sources of revenue. Federal excise
taxes are imposed on alcohol, tobacco, gasoline, telephone usage, production of oil
and gas, and many other types of goods. Many state and local governments impose
similar excise taxes on goods and services.
ADDITIONAL Sales taxes are a major source of revenue for state and local governments. Sales taxes
COMMENT are imposed on retail sales of tangible personal property (e.g., clothing and automo-
Anheuser-Busch Company ran a biles). Some states also impose a sales tax on personal services (e.g., accounting and
television commercial in 1990 dur-
ing the deliberations on the legal fees). Certain items often are exempt from the sales tax levy (e.g., food items or
Revenue Reconciliation Act of medicines), and the rates vary widely between individual state and local governments.
1990 that asked viewers to call a
toll-free telephone number to
Sales taxes are not deductible for federal income tax purposes unless incurred in a
register their criticism of an trade or business.
increase in the excise tax on beer.
The commercial asked viewers to Employment taxes include Social Security (FICA) and federal and state unemployment
“can the beer tax.” compensation taxes. If an individual is classified as an employee, the FICA tax that is
imposed on the employee is comprised of two parts, 6.2% for old-age, survivors, and
disability insurance (OASDI) and 1.45% for hospital insurance (HI), for a total of
7.65%. The OASDI portion is imposed on the first $97,500 (2007) of wages, whereas
the HI portion has no ceiling. Both of these taxes are imposed on both the employer
and employee. If an individual is self-employed, a self-employment tax is imposed at a
15.3% rate (12.4% for OASDI and 2.9% for HI) on the individual’s self-employment
income, with a ceiling on the OASDI portion of $97,500 (in 2007).18 Similar to
employees, there is no ceiling on the HI portion for self-employed individuals.
ADDITIONAL Employers are required to pay federal and state unemployment taxes to fund the pay-
COMMENT ment of unemployment benefits to former employees. The federal rate is 6.2% on the
Revenue from employment taxes first $7,000 of wages for each employee in 2006.19 However, a credit is granted for up
are indeed significant. In 2005,
$794 billion in employment taxes to 5.4% of wages for taxes paid to the state government so that the actual amount
were collected representing 37% paid to the federal government may be as low as 0.8%.20 The amount of tax paid to
of all Internal Revenue Service
collections.
the state depends on the employer’s prior experience with respect to the frequency and
amount of unemployment claims. In Kentucky, for example, the highest rate of unem-
ployment tax imposed is 3% and this rate is subsequently adjusted down if the
employer has a small number of unemployment claims.
The types of taxes and structural considerations that were previously discussed are
summarized in Topic Review I:1-1.

CR I T E R I A
F O R A TA X
STRUCTURE
Establishing criteria for a “good” tax structure was first attempted in 1776 by economist
OBJECTIVE 4 Adam Smith.21 Smith’s four “canons of taxation”—equity, certainty, convenience, and
Discuss what constitutes a economy—are still used today when tax policy issues are discussed. Many have added a
“good” tax structure, the fifth canon of simplicity. Below is a discussion of these criteria and how they relate to
objectives of the federal income taxes as well as other taxes.
income tax law, and recent
tax reform proposals EQUITY
A rather obvious criteria for a good tax is that the tax be equitable or fair to taxpayers.
However, equity or fairness is elusive because of the subjectivity of the concept. What one
person may conclude is fair in a particular situation may be considered totally unfair by

18 Self-employed individuals receive an income tax deduction equal to 50% 20 Sec. 3302. State unemployment taxes in some states are levied on tax bases

of taxes paid on their self-employment income and this deduction is also above $7,000. For example, the wage base ceiling in North Carolina is
allowed to compute the amount of self-employment income (see Secs. 164(f) $12,500 in 2006.
and 1402(a)(12) and Chapter I:14). 21 Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (New York: Random House, Modern
19 Sec. 3301. Library, 1937), pp. 777–779.


Topic Review I:1-1
Ty p e s o f Ta x e s a n d Ta x S t r u c t u r e

TYPE OF TAX TAX STRUCTURE TAX BASE

Individuals:
Federal income tax Progressive Gross income from all sources unless specifically excluded
by law reduced by deductions and exemptions
State income tax Progressive Generally based on AGI for federal income tax
purposes with adjustments
Federal gift tax Progressive FMV of all taxable gifts made during the tax year
Federal estate tax Progressive FMV of property owned at death plus taxable gifts
made after 1976

Corporations:
Federal corporate Progressive Gross income from all sources unless specifically
income tax excluded by law reduced by deductions
State corporate Proportional or Federal corporate taxable income with
income tax progressive adjustments
State franchise tax Proportional Usually based on a weighted-average formula
consisting of net worth, income, and sales

Other Types of Taxes:
Property taxes Proportional FMV of personal or real property
Excise taxes Proportional Customs and duties on imported and domestic
goods from alcohol to telephone usage
Sales taxes Proportional Retail sales of tangible personal property
or personal services
FICA and self- Regressive Based on wages or self-employment
employment taxes income
Unemployment taxes Regressive Usually first $7,000 of an employee’s wages

ADDITIONAL another person. In other words, fairness is relative in nature and is extremely difficult
COMMENT to measure. For example, the deductibility of mortgage interest on a taxpayer’s home
The Revenue Reconciliation Act of certainly seems to be a fair provision for taxpayers. However, for taxpayers who do not
1993 followed through on
President Clinton’s campaign own a home but live in a rental apartment, the deductibility of mortgage interest may not
promise to increase taxes on high- be considered as fair because the renter cannot deduct any portion of the rent paid. In
income taxpayers to correct per- other types of situations, the federal tax law includes various measures to ensure that tax-
ceived inequities resulting from
the lowering of the top tax rates payers are treated fairly. For example, a foreign tax credit is available to minimize the
in the Tax Reform Act of 1986. double taxation that would otherwise occur when U.S. taxpayers earn income in a foreign
country that is taxed by both the United States and the country in which it is earned. (See
the glossary at the end of this volume for a definition of tax credits and Chapter I:14 for
a discussion of the foreign tax credit.) Two aspects of equity are commonly discussed in
the tax policy literature, horizontal equity and vertical equity. Horizontal equity refers to
the notion that similarly situated taxpayers should be treated equally. Thus, two taxpay-
ers who each have income of $50,000 should both pay the same amount of tax. Vertical
equity, on the other hand, implies that taxpayers who are not similarly situated should be
treated differently. Thus, if Taxpayer A has income of $50,000 and Taxpayer B has
KEY POINT income of $20,000, Taxpayers A and B should not pay the same amount of income tax.
Using retroactive dates for Vertical equity provides that the incidence of taxation should be borne by those who have
changes in the tax law does not the ability to pay the tax, based on income or wealth. The progressive rate structure is
help to accomplish the objective
of certainty. For example, the
founded on the vertical equity premise.
effective date of the increase in
the top tax rate was made C E R TA I N T Y
retroactive to January 1, 1993, in
tax legislation signed by President A certain tax (1) ensures a stable source of government operating revenues and (2) pro-
Clinton on August 19, 1993. This vides taxpayers with some degree of certainty concerning the amount of their annual tax
retroactive tax increase was
unpopular with high-income
liability. A tax that is simple to understand and administer provides certainty for taxpay-
taxpayers. ers. For many years, our income tax laws have been criticized as being overly complex


and difficult to administer. Consider the remarks of a noted tax authority at a conference
on federal income tax simplification:

Tax advisers—at least some tax advisers—are saying that the income tax system is not work-
ing. They are saying that they don’t know what the law provides, that the IRS does not know
what the law provides, that taxpayers are not abiding by the law they don’t know.22

While the above statement is over 20 years old, it is certainly still viable today. This uncer-
tainty in the tax law causes frequent disputes between taxpayers and the IRS and has
resulted in extensive litigation.
ADDITIONAL The federal tax system has made some attempts to provide certainty for taxpayers. For
COMMENT example, the IRS issues advance rulings to taxpayers, which provides some assurance con-
Humorist Jim Boren has proposed cerning the tax consequences of a proposed transaction for the taxpayer who requests the
a constitutional amendment that
would require any retroactive tax ruling. The taxpayer may rely on the ruling if the transaction is completed in accordance with
increases to be followed by the terms of the ruling request. For example, if a merger of two corporations is being consid-
retroactive elections for presi-
dent, vice president, and all mem-
ered, the transaction can be structured so that the shareholders and the corporations do not
bers of Congress. recognize gain or loss. If a favorable ruling is received and the transaction is completed as
planned, the IRS cannot later assert that the merger does not qualify for tax-free treatment.

CONVENIENCE
A tax law should be easily assessed, collected, and administered. Taxpayers should not be
overly burdened with the maintenance of records and compliance considerations (prepa-
ration of their tax returns, payment of their taxes, and so on). One of the reasons that the
sales tax is such a popular form of tax for state and local governments is that it is con-
venient for taxpayers to pay and for the government to collect. The consumer need not
complete a tax return or keep detailed records.

ECONOMY
ADDITIONAL An economical tax structure should require only minimal compliance and administrative
COMMENT costs. The IRS collection costs, amounting to less than 0.5% of revenues, are minimal rel-
For tax year 2004, 59% of all indi- ative to the total collections of revenues from the federal income tax. Estimates of tax-
vidual tax returns were prepared
by paid tax-return preparers. This payer compliance costs are less certain. One indicator of total compliance costs for tax-
compares with 48% of returns payers is the demand for tax professionals. Tax practice has been and continues to be one
prepared by paid return preparers
in 1990. For taxpayers who file
of the fastest growing areas in public accounting firms. Most large corporations also
Form 1040 (as opposed to form maintain sizable tax departments that engage in tax research, compliance, and planning
1040A and Form 1040EZ), 91% activities. In addition, many commercial tax return preparer services are available to assist
used paid preparers.
taxpayers who have relatively uncomplicated tax returns.
Complying with the tax laws is enormously expensive for both businesses and individ-
uals in the United States. In 2002, businesses spent an estimated $102.5 billion to comply
with the federal tax laws, while it cost individuals about $86.1 billion.23 Compliance with
state and local taxes costs another $80 billion. Clearly, the cost of complying with the
nation’s tax laws is significant, in terms of both money and time.
A more difficult question is whether the tax structure is economical in terms of taxpayer
compliance. The issues of tax avoidance and tax evasion are becoming increasingly more
important. The General Accounting Office (GAO) reported that two-thirds of tax returns
are out of compliance, resulting in net income being underreported by 25 percent.24

SIMPLICITY
One of the important measures of any tax system is that of simplicity, or at least, not
undue complexity. Taxpayers should be able to understand and comply with any tax sys-
tem within reasonable boundaries. The sales tax is an example of a tax system that is rel-
atively simple, although the sales tax as it applies to businesses can become fairly complex.
The federal income tax system in the United States has become inordinately complex over

22 Sidney L. Roberts, “The Viewpoint of the Tax Adviser: An Overview of 24 News Report. “Compliance Said to Be Poor Among Sole Proprietorships,”

Simplification,” Tax Adviser, January 1979, p. 32. Tax Notes, December 12, 1994, p. 1328.
23 Scott Moody, “The Cost of Tax Compliance,” Tax Foundation, February,

2002, p. 1.


the years and complexity is one of the major criticisms of the income tax. The following is
a quote from the report from the President’s Advisory Panel on Federal Tax Reform:25

In short, our current tax code is a complicated mess. Instead of clarity, we have opacity.
Instead of simplicity, we have complexity. Instead of fair principles, we have seemingly arbi-
trary rules. Instead of contributing to economic growth, it detracts from growth. Time and
time again, witnesses told the Panel about these failings in the tax code.

While simplicity is an admirable goal of any tax system, achieving this goal in the federal
income tax system is difficult and involves the trade-off of other important objectives. For
example, simplicity and fairness are almost impossible to achieve together. If the income
tax law is extremely simple, like a flat tax rate on all income, the possible result is that
many taxpayers will not be treated fairly. Consider this case, two taxpayers, A and B both
earn $100,000 per year and we have a flat rate tax of 20% so that each taxpayer will pay
$20,000 in income taxes for the year. However, assume that taxpayer B has a severe ill-
ness that requires him to pay medical expenses of $60,000 per year. Should both A and B
pay the same income tax for the year? There is no absolute correct answer in this case, it
depends on your definition of fairness. Thus, making the income tax law simple may not
be the top priority in tax reform.

OB J E C T I V E S OF THE
F E D E R A L I N C O M E TA X L AW
The primary objective of the federal income tax law is to raise revenues for government
operations. In recent years, the federal government has broadened its use of the tax laws
to accomplish various economic and social policy objectives.

ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES
ADDITIONAL The federal income tax law is used as a fiscal policy tool to stimulate private investment,
COMMENT reduce unemployment, and mitigate the effects of inflation on the economy. Consider the
Among the provisions in the tax following example: Tax credits for businesses operating in distressed urban and rural
law that are designed to enhance
the level of health care are the areas (empowerment zones) are allowed to provide economic revitalization of such areas.
deductibility of medical expenses, This is a clear example of using the federal income tax law to stimulate private investment
deductibility of charitable contri- in specific areas.
butions to hospitals, and exclu-
sion of fringe benefits provided Many items in the tax law are adjusted for inflation by using the consumer price index,
by employers for medical insur- including the tax brackets, personal and dependency exemptions, and standard deduction
ance premiums and medical care.
amounts. These inflation adjustments provide relief for individual taxpayers who would
otherwise be subject to increased taxes due to the effects of inflation. (See Chapter I:2 for
a discussion of the tax computation for individuals.)

E N C O U R A G E M E N T O F C E R TA I N
ACTIVITIES AND INDUSTRIES
The federal income tax law also attempts to stimulate and encourage certain activities,
specialized industries, and small businesses. One such example is the encouragement of
research activities by permitting an immediate write-off of expenses and a special tax
credit for increasing research and experimental costs. Special incentives are also provided
to the oil and gas industry through percentage depletion allowances and an election to
deduct intangible drilling costs.
Certain favorable tax provisions are provided for small businesses, including
reduced corporate tax rates of 15% on the first $50,000 of taxable income and 25%
for the next $25,000 of taxable income. Favorable ordinary loss (instead of capital
loss) deductions are granted to individual investors who sell their small business cor-

25 Report of the President’s Advisory Panel on Federal Tax Reform, Simple,

Fair, & Pro-Growth: Proposals to Fix America’s Tax System, November
2005, p. 2. See the discussion of tax reform in this chapter.


poration stock at a loss, provided that certain requirements are met.26 In addition,
noncorporate investors may exclude up to 50% of the gain realized from the disposi-
tion of qualified small business stock if the stock is held for more than five years.27

ADDITIONAL SOCIAL OBJECTIVES
COMMENT The tax law attempts to encourage or discourage certain socially desirable or undersirable
Deductible contributions made by activities. For example:
self-employed individuals to their
retirement plans (Keogh plans) Special tax-favored pension and profit-sharing plans have been created for employees
totaled $19.3 billion in 2004. and self-employed individuals to supplement the social security retirement system.
Charitable deductions totaled
over $165 billion that same year. Charitable contributions are deductible to encourage individuals to contribute to char-
itable organizations.
The claiming of a deduction for illegal bribes, fines, and penalties has been prohibited
to discourage activities that are contrary to public policy.

EXAMPLE I:1-10 Able Corporation establishes a qualified pension plan for its employees whereby it makes all of
the annual contributions to the plan. Able’s contributions to the pension trust are currently
deductible and not includible in the employees’ gross income until the pension payments are
distributed during their retirement years. Earnings on the contributed funds also are nontax-
able until such amounts are distributed to the employees.

EXAMPLE I:1-11 Anita contributes $10,000 annually to her church, which is a qualified charitable organization.
Anita’s marginal tax rate is 25%. Her after-tax cost of contributing to the church is only $7,500
[$10,000 (0.25 $10,000)].

EXAMPLE I:1-12 Ace Trucking Company incurs $10,000 in fines imposed by local and state governments for over-
loading its trucks during the current tax year. The fines are not deductible because the activity
is contrary to public policy.

The tax law objectives previously discussed are highlighted in Topic Review I:1-2.

I N C O M E TA X R E F O R M P R O P O S A L S
Tax reform has been a much debated topic over the years but has taken center stage
recently. There has been a flurry of books, articles, and newspaper editorials that range
from installing a completely new tax system to a partial revision of the current income

Topic Review I:1-2
O b j e c t i v e s o f t h e Ta x L a w

OBJECTIVE EXAMPLE

Stimulate investment Provide a tax credit for the purchase of business equipment
Prevent taxpayers from paying a higher percentage of Index the tax rates, standard deduction, and personal and
their income in personal income taxes due to inflation dependency exemptions for inflation
(bracket creep)
Encourage research activities that will in turn strengthen Allow research expenditures to be written off in the year
the competitiveness of U.S. companies incurred and offer a tax credit for increasing research and
experimental costs
Encourage venture capital for small businesses Reduce corporate income tax rates on the first $75,000 of
taxable income. Allow businesses to immediately expense
$108,000 (2006) of certain depreciable business assets
acquired each year.
Encourage social objectives Provide a tax deduction for charitable contributions; provide
favorable tax treatment for contributions to qualified
pension plans

26 Sec. 1244. 27 Sec. 1202.


tax. Few people support keeping the income tax system as it currently stands. Some pro-
ponents of a new tax system advocate substituting a retail sales tax at the federal level for
the income tax, others favor a value-added tax system (VAT tax) that is widely used in
Europe. A partial revision of what we have now is also a popular option.
In early 2005, President George W. Bush appointed an advisory panel to completely
study the current tax system and recommend options to the current tax system. The
President allowed the panel great latitude in making recommendations except that the
new system must raise the same amount of tax revenues as the current tax system. In
November, 2005, the Panel issued its report entitled Simple, Fair, & Pro-Growth:
Proposals to Fix America’s Tax System.28 Below is a brief summary of the report:
The Panel proposed two options, (1) The Simplified Income Tax Plan (SITP), and (2)
The Growth and Investment Tax Plan (GITP). The SITP uses the current income tax
system as a starting point for reform whereas the GITP would shift the current system
toward a consumption tax.
The SITP widens the tax base by eliminating most deductions that are currently in
place, moderately reduces tax rates to four brackets of 15%, 25%, 30%, and 33%,
replaces the personal exemptions and standard deduction with a new Family Credit,
changes the mortgage interest deduction to a 15% credit, and allows charitable contri-
butions that are in excess of 1% of income. A major thrust of the proposal is to sim-
plify and streamline the computation and filing of annual income tax returns. Finally,
the alternative minimum tax (AMT) is repealed.
The SITP increases incentives to save and invest. Several new tax-favored savings plans
are proposed, 100% of dividends from U.S. corporations are excluded from taxation,
and 75% of capital gains from U.S. corporation stock are excluded.
The SITP dramatically changes the taxation of U.S. taxpayers operating outside the
United States. The proposal would move to a territorial system which essentially
means that U.S. businesses are not taxed on earnings earned outside the country.
The GITP would be very similar to the SITP for individual taxpayers except that there
would only be three rate brackets of 15%, 25%, and 30%. And dividends and capital
gains would continue to be taxed at 15% as under current law.
The principal differences between the GITP and the SITP are related to business.
Principally, businesses would be permitted to expense all business investments, such as
machinery and equipment, but not land and buildings. Large businesses would not be
taxed on interest income but would also not be allowed to deduct interest expense.
Small businesses would be permitted to use a simplified method of accounting, very
similar to a cash-basis of accounting.
At present, it is unclear as to the impact of the Panel’s recommendations. While the
recommendations are well thought-out, there are other pressing matters facing Congress
that may postpone implementation of tax reform in a comprehensive manner. Piecemeal
changes to the tax code certainly may continue and this only ensures continued complexity
in the tax law.

EN T I T I E S IN THE FEDERAL
I N C O M E TA X S Y S T E M
OBJECTIVE 5
The federal income tax law levies taxes on taxpayers. However, not all entities that file
Describe the tax entities in income tax returns pay income taxes. For example, a partnership is required to file a tax
the federal income tax return but does not pay any income tax because the income (or loss) of the partnership is
system allocated to the partners who report the income or loss on their individual tax returns.
Therefore, the various entities in the federal income tax system may be classified into two

28 Supra, note 25.


general categories, taxpaying entities and flow-through entities.29 Taxpaying entities gen-
erally are required to pay income taxes on their taxable income. Flow-through entities, on
the other hand, generally do not directly pay income taxes but merely pass the income on
to a taxpaying entity. The major entities in each category are as follows:
Taxpaying Entities Flow-through Entities
Individuals Sole proprietorship
C corporations (regular corporations) Partnerships
S corporations
Limited Liability Company (LLC) or
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)
Trusts
Each of these entities is discussed below. The purpose of this section is to provide an over-
all picture of the various entities in the federal income tax system.

TA X PAY I N G E N T I T I E S
INDIVIDUALS. Individual taxpayers are the principal taxpaying entities in the federal
income tax system. In 2005, income taxes paid by individual taxpayers comprised nearly
43% of total federal revenues. If Social Security taxes are included, individual taxpayers paid
80% of total federal revenues (see Table I:1-1 for details). Thus, the study of taxation of indi-
viduals is a very important topic and is discussed extensively in this Principles textbook.
Individuals pay income taxes on all gross income minus allowable deductions. Gross
income minus allowable deductions is referred to as taxable income. Gross income subject
to taxation may be broadly classified into three categories:
Earned income from sources such as salaries and wages, business income, and retire-
ment income.
Investment income, including interest income, dividends, capital gains, and rents and
royalties.
Flow-through income from partnerships, limited liability companies (LLCs),
Subchapter S corporations, estates, and trusts.
Allowable deductions include expenses attributable to the gross income above and certain
personal deductions and exemptions specifically allowed under the tax law. Gross income
and allowable deductions and exemptions are discussed in detail later in this textbook.
Individual taxpayers use the tax formula below to compute their taxable income:
Total income, from whatever source derived $xxx
Minus: Exclusions, as provided in the tax law (xxx)
Gross income xxx
Minus: Deductions for adjusted gross income (xxx)
Adjusted gross income (AGI) xxx
Minus: Deductions from AGI:
Greater of itemized deductions or standard deduction (xxx)
Personal and dependency exemptions (xxx)
Taxable income $xxx
Exclusions are items of income that the tax law specifically exempts from taxation. They
include such items as gifts, inheritances, interest income from state and local bonds, loans,
and life insurance proceeds. Exclusions are discussed in Chapter I:4.
Once an individual determines that an expenditure is allowed as a deduction for tax
purposes, he or she must classify the deduction as for AGI or from AGI. This classifica-
tion is very important and is discussed in Chapter I:6. Deductions for AGI basically are
(1) expenses connected with a taxpayer’s business or rental property, or (2) other specified

29 Some entities have characteristics of both categories of entities, including

certain types of trusts and S corporations.

Chapter 1

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Chapter 1

Similar to Chapter 1 (19)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Chapter 1