Indian traditional and culture

1. Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology
Ghaziabad
INDIAN TRADITIONS,CULTURE &SOCIETY
B.Tech. 3rd YEAR,6th Semester
Ms. Vinita Sharma
Assistant Professor
1

2. Faculty Information
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Faculty
Passport
Size
photo
Brief Profile:
 Ms. Vinita Sharma is an Asst. Professor at the Department of
Applied Sciences & Humanities in Raj Kumar Goel Institute of
Technology.
 Taught many courses such as Managerial Economics, COILE
Industrial Management, Indian Tradition
 More than 9 years of teaching experience .
 Masters in Commerce from C.C.S University with first division .
Masters in Business Administration from U.P.T.U with first
division.

3. Evaluation Scheme
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Subject L T P C
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TA TOT
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PS TE PE TOT
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ITCS 2 0 0 15 10 25 50 0

4. SUBJECT SYLLABUS
INDIAN TRADITIONS, CULTURALAND SOCIETY L: T:P: 2: 0:0
• Module 1- Society State and Polity in India
• State in Ancient India: Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical Theory Contract Theory, Stages of State Formation in Ancient
India, Kingship , Council of Ministers Administration Political Ideals in Ancient India Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies, The
Seven Limbs of the State, Society in Ancient India, Purusārtha, Varnāshrama System, Āshrama or the Stages of Life, Marriage,
Understanding Gender as a social category, The representation of Women in Historical traditions, Challenges faced by Women.
Four-class Classification, Slavery.
• Module 2- Indian Literature, Culture, Tradition, and Practices
• Evolution of script and languages in India: Harappan Script and Brahmi Script. The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, Puranas, Buddhist And Jain Literature in Pali,Prakrit And Sanskrit, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous Sanskrit
Authors, Telugu Literature, Kannada Literature,Malayalam Literature ,Sangama Literature Northern Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian And Urdu ,Hindi Literature
• Module 3- Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices
• Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian Philosophy, Shankaracharya, Various Philosophical
Doctrines , Other Heterodox Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious reform movement of 19th century, Modern
religious practices.
• Module 4-Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System
• Astronomy in India, Chemistry in India, Mathematics in India, Physics in India, Agriculture in India, Medicine in India
,Metallurgy in India, Geography, Biology, Harappan Technologies, Water Management in India, Textile Technology in India
,Writing Technology in India Pyrotechnics in India Trade in Ancient India/,India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times
•
• Module 5- Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts
• Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India, Sculptures, Seals, coins, Pottery, Puppetry, Dance, Music, Theatre,
drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions, Fairs and Festivals, Current developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s Cultural
Contribution to the World. Indian Cinema. 4

5. • The course aims at imparting basic principles of thought process, reasoning
and inference to identify the roots and details of some of the contemporary
issues faced by our nation and try to locate possible solutions to these
challenges by digging deep into our past.
• To enable the students to understand the importance of our surroundings and
encourage the students to contribute towards sustainable development.
• To sensitize students towards issues related to ‘Indian’ culture, tradition and its
composite character.
• To make students aware of holistic life styles of Yogic-science and wisdom
capsules in Sanskrit literature that are important in modern society with rapid
technological advancements and societal disruptions.
• To acquaint students with Indian Knowledge System, Indian perspective of
modern scientific world-view and basic principles of Yoga and holistic health
care system.
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Course Objective

6. • CO 1:To be able to learn about ancient India and its culture
• CO2:To be able to describe the Indian traditions, languages and literature.
• CO 3:To be able to analyze and apply the knowledge of various religions in
solving various contemporary issues.
• CO 4:To be able to present the sustainable solutions to the world by applying
the knowledge of science and management.
• CO 5:To be able to apply basic principles of cultural heritage in modern
society with rapid technological advancements and societal disruptions.
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Course Outcome

7. Program Outcomes
• Engineering Graduates will be able to:
• PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
• PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, and review research literature and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
• PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or
processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal,
and environmental considerations.
• PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of
experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
• PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools
including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
• PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice
• PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
• PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
• PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.
• PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with
society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
• PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles
and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.1
• PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long
learning in the broadest context of technological change.
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8. NBA
CODE
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO.1 3
CO.2 3 1 1
CO.3 2 2 3 1 1 1 1
CO.4 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 1
CO.5 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1
CO
1 1.5 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1.3 1
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CO-PO Mapping

9. End Semester Question Paper Template
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10. Brief Introduction about the Subject
• India enjoys a wide variety of cultural and traditional presence amongst the 28
states. Indian origin religions Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are all based on
dharma and karma. Even, India is a blessed holy place which is also a native place for
most of the religions. Recently, Muslim and Christianity also practised working
amongst the whole India population. The pledge also added the line, ‘India is my
country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.’ Indians are great with
cooking; their spices are special for medicinal purposes. Talking about the language,
India is blessed with a wide range of languages used. Each state has its own language.
Indian clothing is adorable to most of the foreigners. Woman wearing a sari is the
pride of a nation. These create a pleasant effect and she looks so beautiful that a
majority of foreign country’s female want to be like her. Apart from all the above facts,
Indians are legends with arts and studious material. Indian culture is one of the
oldest and most unique cultures known across the globe. It has various kinds of
traditional values, religion, dance, festivals, music, and cloth, which varies from
each state or town even. Indian art, cuisine, religion, Literature, Education, Heritage,
Clothes etc has a huge impact on the whole world where everyone admires and follows
it. It is known as the land of cultural diversity. India thrives on a variety of
languages, religions, and cultures due to the diverse race of people living in the
country. It can be referred to as one of the world’s most culturally enriched countries.
When one thinks of India, they picture colors, smiling faces of children running in the
streets, bangle vendors, street food, music, religious festivals etc. 10

11. Basic knowledge of Society in Ancient
India
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Prerequisites

12. Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology
Ghaziabad
UNIT-1
SOCIETY STATE AND POLITY IN
INDIA
12

13. Unit Content
• Module 1- Society State and Polity in India
• State in Ancient India: Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory,
Mystical Theory Contract Theory, Stages of State Formation in
Ancient India, Kingship , Council of Ministers Administration
Political Ideals in Ancient India Conditions’ of the Welfare of
Societies, The Seven Limbs of the State, Society in Ancient
India, Purusārtha, Varnāshrama System, Āshrama or the Stages
of Life, Marriage, Understanding Gender as a social category,
The representation of Women in Historical traditions,
Challenges faced by Women. Four-class Classification,
Slavery.

14. • To impart basic principles of thought process, reasoning and
inference to identify the roots and details of some of the
contemporary issues faced by our nation and try to locate
possible solutions to these challenges by digging deep into our
past.
14
Unit Objective

15. • To look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the greatest issues in
Political Science, ancient Indian thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya,
Kamandaka also have looked at the problem.
• On the basis of the writings of these thinkers four important theories can be detected
regarding the origin of the state in ancient India.
a) Evolutionary Theory
b) Force Theory
c) Mystical Theory
d) Contract Theory
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UNIT -1

16. Evolutionary Theory
• This Evolutionary theory is also known as sociological or the correct theory of the
origin of the state. This theory helps in understanding the forces and factors, which
created the state. It explains the state is the product of growth, a slow and steady
evolution extending over a long period of time and ultimately shaping itself into the
complex structure of a modern state.
• The important factors which contributed to the growth of the state are
1. Kinship
2. Magic and Religion
3. Property and the rise of Economic Classes
4. War and Force
5. Political consciousness
• Conclusion
• It follows that many factors helped the growth of the state. No single factor alone was
responsible for its origin. Sometimes all and sometimes many of them help the process
by which uncivilized society was transformed into a state.
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17. • Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a
systematic way, force was considered to be an important factor in the evolution
of the state in India.
• Earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (specially for
the cow), pastureland, settlements and sources of drinking water.
• Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such wars. So he was
given special status and the members of clan started obeying him.
• This tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the leader
became king. Citing examples from the Vedas (Rig Veda and Sama Veda) and
the Brahmanas (Aitareya, Shatapatha) John Spellman also opines that the king
in ancient India was primarily a military leader.
• But it should be clearly mentioned that none of the political commentators give
a systematic and well knitted explanation of the role of force in the emergence
of the state in ancient India.
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Force Theory

18. Mystical Theory
• This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India.
• Kingship was given divine sanction and the king was considered not to be the
representative of God but himself a God who contained the powers of
important Gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni.
• It appears first in the epics and the law books of Manu, the king was exalted
far above ordinary mortals, through the magical powers of the great royal
sacrifices.
• The royal consecration (Rājasūya) which in its full form comprised a series of
sacrifices lasting for over a year imbued the king with divine power.
• In the course of the ceremonies he was identified with Indra ―because he is a
kshatriya and because he is a sacrificer and even with the high God Prajapati
himself.
• He took three steps on a tiger skin and was thus magically identified with the
God Vishnu whose three paces covered earth and heaven.
• The king was evidently the fellow of the God.
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19. Social Contract Theory
• The term social stands for the society where these individual persons live and the
term contract is an agreement or a promise made between the two or more
individual and a groups/society.
• In the social contract theory, a specific population within a given designated area
gave up as much power to a government as needed to promote the well-being of
all. Specifically, the community population and the leader have a contract. The
state has power and authority over the territory. The community receives certain
services such as a safe, crime-free area in which to live and keep their rights
protected.
• This theory was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries by philosophers such
as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.
• According to Hobbes people will surrender all their rights to the kings and king
will not be a part of the contract, the king will be all sovereign whereas Locke
says that the people will surrender only a part of their right to the king and is
also a part of the contract and the people will have the right to change the king if
he fails to fulfill his duties and Rousseau talks about the General Will, it is not
the will of all nor it is the will of the majority but is a general will is the will of
the people for the common good. 19

20. Stages of State Formation in Ancient India
• The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal
assemblies, which had some place for women were mainly pre-occupied with war.
The age of Rig Veda was primarily a period of assemblies.
• The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress of
constant conflicts between the rājanya kshatriya and the ordinary businessman
called the vis. The chiefs were helped by the priesthood called the brahmins. This
stage saw the beginning of taxes and classes or varnas which came to be firmly
established in the third stage.
• The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged state. There
arose large territorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha and tribal oligarchies in
North-Western India and at the foot of the Himalayas. For the first time we hear of
large standing armies and organised machinery for the collection of land revenue.
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21. Stages of State Formation in Ancient India
• The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralisation based on the
expanding economic activities of the state. The state with the help of its
bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its subjects.
• The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralised administration in
which towns, feudatories and military elements came to the forefront in both the
Deccan and North India. This was partly neutralised by the emphasis on the
divinity of the king.
• The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of
proto-feudal polity. Land grants now played an important part in the formation of
the political structure and those made by the Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal
and administrative privileges on priestly beneficiaries.
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22. Kingship
• The king was the most important figure in the body politic. Vedic literature
mentions that during the frequent fights between the gods and demons, it was
the latter that always emerged victorious. The gods came to the conclusion that
their defeat was due to they not having a king. They decided to make Indra as
king.
• According to the Mahabharatha in the early years of Krita Yuga there was no
sovereignty, no king and no government. All men used to protect one another
righteously. After some Error began to assail their hearts, the perception of
men became clouded and their virtues began to decline and chaos descended.
The gods then approached Brahma who created by a fiat of his will, a son
named Virajas and made him the ruler of the world.
• According to Arthashastra, The king was the most important figure in the
body politic. In the Saptānga theory of the state, developed by Kautilya the
king has been described as the head or the most important organ of the state.
The king performed multi-dimensional functions.
The king’s functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom against
external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional custom against
internal foes.
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23. Kingship
• He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who
challenged the system were excommunicated.
• He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he protected
the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and oppression. Religion was
protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples and frequently to
heterodox sects also.
• According to Buddhist, canonical work, paddy was the main crop in eastern
India. The chief discord was hoarding of rice by some people over and above
what they required for their consumption and stealing of rice from the fields.
Hence people assembled and agreed to choose a chief to prevent such
occurrence mentioned above. In return they agreed to contribute him a portion
of their paddy. That individual had three titles like Maha Sammata i.e. chosen
by the whole people, Kshatriya i.e. lord of the fields and Raja i.e. one who
pleases by means of dharma or act.
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24. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
• Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient Indian political
thinkers as a very vital organ of the body politic.
• The Mahābhārata observes that the king is as vitally dependent upon ministers
as brahmins on the Vedas and people upon their kings.
• Manusmriti points out that even a simple thing appears as difficult if one is to
do it single handed; as an attempt to run the complex machinery of the
administration without the assistance of ministers.
• The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied, and the
authorities suggested figures ranging from seven to thirty-seven. It seems that
the body was divided into two parts mantrina and mantriparishad.
• Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of ministers.
It consisted of all the ministers. Mantrina was a smaller body or a core
organisation within the mantriparishad largely resembling the modern cabinet.
It included the few most important ministers like the purohita (priest), senāpati
(supreme commander of army) and yuvarāja (the crown prince).
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25. ADMINISTRATION
• Indian administration, has its evolution that can be traced back to the 5000
years old Indus Valley Civilization wherein the King was all powerful and
everything in the Kingdom was carried out in his name. He was assisted by a
council of ministers, and also other functionaries and officers in administering
the Kingdom. In other words, in the ancient times, powers of administering the
Kingdom were centralized in the institution of King.
• This was followed by the Vedic period. Early Vedic Aryans were organised
into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called ‘Rajan.’ The
main responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by
several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army
chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies).
• Evolution of Indian Administration However, a systematic model of
administration came in with the coming of the Mauryan and Gupta dynasties.
Both the dynasties had elaborate governmental machineries that carried out
state functions in a highly organized manner.
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26. THE SAPTANGA THEORY: ELEMENTS OF STATE
• It is the first time in Arthashastra of Kautilya the state is defined as seven
elements. Kautilya writes the king and kingdom are the primary elements of
the state because all other elements revolve round these two elements.
• The saptanga theory as given by Kautilya was almost universally accepted as
the standard definition to know the nature of the ancient India. The seven
limbs as enumerated by Kautilya represent all the four essential features of the
state: territory, population, unity and organization.
• Kautilya enumerated seven prakritis or essential organs of the state. They are
as follow:
• (i)Swami (The Ruler) (ii)Amatya (The Minister)
• (iii)Janapada (The Population) (iv)Durga (The Fortified Capital)
• (v)Kosha (The Treasury) (vi)Danda (The Army)
• (vii) Mitra (Ally and Friend)
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27. Society in Ancient India
• Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features. It was arranged in
the form of four varnas. The life of individual was divided into four stages or
āshramas. There were rules regarding marriage, family etc. The purpose of life
was to attain four goals called purusārthas.
Purusartha
• The concept of purusārthas is the fundamental principle of Indian social
ethics. The word purusārtha means “attainments” or “life purposes”. The aim of
every person is to attain the four noble ends or purusārtha. These four
purusārthas are — dharma, artha, kāma and moksha.
Varnā System
• People were classified according to their Varna or castes in ancient India
during the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE). Brahmins (priests, gurus,
etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists,
traders, etc., sometimes known as Vysyas), and Shudras (labourers) are the four
main types.
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28. Society in Ancient India
• The Asharama System denotes the Hindu scheme of life according to
which different stages in the life of an individual are well ordered. The average
life span of an individual is considered to be 100 years and it is divided into four
stages each stage having a time span of 25 years.
These four ashramas are:
1. Brahmacharyāshrama or the Stage of Studentship —
This is the first stage of life. It is meant for acquiring knowledge, developing
discipline and moulding character. This stage starts with the ceremony called
upanayanama or investiture with the sacred thread. Now the person became a
brahmachārina, leading a celibate and austere life as a student at the home of his
teacher.
2. Grihasthāshrama or the Stage of Householder —
This stage starts at marriage when the student has completed his studentship and
is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of household life. In this stage
the individual gets married, earns money and begets children. The individual
pursues wealth (artha) and pleasure (kāma) within the limits of the moral law
(dharma).
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29. Cont…
3. Vanaprasthasharma or the Stage of Retirement from Active Life—
After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the individual
enters into the Vānaprastha stage. It consists of the third quarter of person’s life.
In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates himself to a
life of spiritual contemplation. He leaves his home and goes to the forest to
become a hermit.
4. Sanyasashrama or the Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic—
This is the last stage of life. Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes
a homeless wanderer (sanyāsin) with all his earthly ties broken. The sanyāsin
aspires and acts to attain liberation only.
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30. MARRIAGE
• Marriage is an important social institution. It is a relationship, which is socially
approved and sanctioned by custom and law. It is also a set of cultural
mechanisms which ensure the continuation of the family. It is more or less a
universal social institution in India.
• The marriage system had undergone radical changes especially after
independence. Even though the basic religious beliefs associated with
marriage have not crumbled down, many of the practices, customs, and forms
have changed.
Manu and other law givers have mentioned about eight forms of marriage:
1. Brahma Vivāha: This is considered to be the purest form of marriage. In this
form of marriage the father of the bride offers his daughter to a man of
character and learning. The daughter who is decked with ornaments and richly
dressed is given as a gift to a man of good character and high learning.
2. Daiva Vivāha: In the daiva form of marriage the father offers her daughter as a
dakshinā (sacrificial fee) to a young priest who officiates the yajna which is
arranged by him.
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31. Cont…
3. Ārsa Vivāha: In ārsa vivāha father of the bride gives his daughter to the
bridegroom after receiving a cow and a bull or two pairs of these animals from the
bridegroom.
4. Prajāpatya Vivāha: In this type of marriage, the father offers the girl to the
bridegroom. But neither does he offer any dowry nor does he demand bride-price.
5. Asura Vivaha: This is a form of marriage by purchase in which the bridegroom
has to give money to the father or kinsman of the bride.
6. Gandharva Vivaha: This was a marriage by consent of the boy and the girl.
Mutual love and consent of the bride and bridegroom was the only condition
required to bring about the union.
7. Rākshasa Vivaha: This was marriage by capture in which the girl was forcibly
abducted from her home, crying and weeping.
8. Paishacha Vivaha:
Out of these eight forms of marriage the first four have been described as
prashasta or approved or desirable marriage whereas the rest of the four forms
have been considered to be aprashasta or disapproved or undesirable marriages.
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32. 32
UNIT- 2
Indian Literature, Culture,
Tradition, and Practices

33. EVOLUTION OF SCRIPT AND LANGUAGES
IN INDIA
 All Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi.
 There are three main families of scripts: Devanagari;
Dravidian; and Grantha.
 There are many languages in the Ancient Indian script, such
as Sanskrit, Pali, and Hindi.
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34. BRAHMI SCRIPT
• Brahmi is the originator of most of the present Indian scripts, including
Devanagari, Bengali, Tamil, and Malayalam etc.
• It developed into two broad types in Northern and Southern India, in the
Northern one being more angular and the Southern one being more circular. It
was deciphered in 1838 by James Prinsep. The best-known Brahmi
inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to
250–232 BCE.
• Many scholars support that Brahmi probably derives from Aramaic influence
and others support that the Brahmi language can have some Indus script
influence.
• The Brahmi script confirms to the syllabic writing system and was used more
for writing Prakrit, the language spoken by ordinary people initially and later
Sanskrit also was written in this script.
• According to the epigraphers- All Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi.
There are two main families of scripts:
1. Devanagari, which is the basis of the languages of northern and western India:
Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, Dogri, Panjabi, etc.
2. Dravidian which shows the formats of Grantha and Vatteluttu. 34

35. Evolution Of Indian Scripts From The Ancient Brahmi
Script
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36. INDUS(HARAPPAN) SCRIPT
36

37. INDUS SCRIPT
• The Indus script is the writing system developed by the Indus valley
civilization and it is the earliest form of writing known in the Indian
subcontinent.
• The origin of this script is poorly understood: this writing system remains
undeciphered, there is no agreement on the language it represents, no bilingual
texts have been found thus far and its connection with Indian writing systems
proper (e.g. Brahmi, Devanagari and Bengali script) is uncertain. This is the
main reason why the Indus valley civilization is one of the least known of the
important early civilizations of antiquity.
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38. THE VEDAS
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A Veda is a collection of poems or hymns composed in Sanskrit by Indo-European-speaking
peoples who lived in northwest India during the 2nd millennium BCE. The Vedas are considered
the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization. It is the most sacred scriptures of India. They
are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, containing spiritual knowledge encompassing all
aspects of life. They were meant to be mantras (incantations) in praise of various Aryan gods. The
word Veda means wisdom, knowledge or vision.

39. VEDAS
• According to tradition, Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the
four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas (Collections).
• There are four types of Vedas – Rig-Veda, Sam-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and
Atharva-Veda.
• Rig-Veda The oldest Veda is the Rig-Veda. It has 1028 hymns called
‘Suktas’ and is a collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas.’ The features of Rig-
Veda are given in the table below:
• 1028 hymns deal with deities including Agni, Indra and are attributed and
dedicated to a sage rishi
• The ninth Rigvedic book/mandala is solely dedicated to Soma.
• The meters used to form hymns are Gayatri, Anushtubh, Trishtubh and Jagati
(Trishtubh and Gayatri are most important)
39

40. VEDAS
• Samaveda
• Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800
BCE. This Veda is related to public worship. The key features of Samaveda are
given in the table below: There are 1549 verses (except 75 verses, all have
been taken from Rig-Veda)
• There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda – Chandogya Upanishad
and Kena Upanishad
• The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and
dance
• It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants
• Though it has lesser verses than Rig-Veda, however, its texts are larger
40

41. VEDAS
• Samaveda
• Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to
1100-800 BCE; corresponding with Samaveda. It compiles ritual-
offering mantras/chants. These chants were offered by the priest
alongside a person who used to perform a ritual (in most cases
yajna fire.) The key features of Yajurveda are given below:
• It has two types – Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla (White/Bright)
• Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection
of verses
• Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses
• The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up
from Rig-Veda
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42. VEDAS
• Atharvaveda
• Yajurveda was composed between 1200 and 800 BCE, roughly
contemporaneous with the Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
• The Yajurveda is the second of the four Vedas, or religious texts. It is claimed
to have sprouted from Brahm's (the creator's) southern face.
• It is also known as Adhvaryuveda, since it is primarily used in the performance
of Vedic sacrifices, where the Adhvaryu is the principal priest who oversees
the entire sacrifice.
• Its mantras are referred to as yajus. It is practically a guidebook for the
Purohits (priests) to carry out religious ceremonies.
• The earliest and oldest stratum of the Yajurveda samhita has around 1,875
poems that are unique yet borrowed and built on the basis of Rigvedic verses.
42

43. THE UPANISHADS
• The term Upanishad (‘upa’ near; ‘ni’ down; ‘shad’ to sit)
means sitting down near; this implies the students sitting down
near their Guru to learn the big secret.
• The Upanishads were originally called Vedanta, which literally
means the “Conclusion to the Vedas” or “The end portion of
Veda.”
• In the Upanishads, views about Brahman (the Absolute, or God)
and atman (one’s true self) were proposed.
• There are 13 principal Upanishads: Each Upanishad is
associated with a certain Veda.– Katha, Kena, Isa, Mundaka,
Prasna, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka,
Mandukya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Svetasvatara and
Maitrayani
43

44. RAMAYANA
44
The Ramayana is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other
being the Mahabaratha. Composed by the great sage Valmiki in Sanskrit, this is
the most popular and timeless Indian epic read and loved by all and is referred
to as the AdiKavya or original epic.
The term 'Ramayana', literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of
human values. As a literary work, it combines "the inner bliss of Vedic
literature with the outer richness of delightfully profound story telling."

45. RAMAYANA
• TIME OF COMPOSITION
• The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BCE
by the poet Valmiki and in its present form consists of some 24,000 couplets
divided into seven books.
• BASIC TEACHING
• The basic teaching of Ramayana is that no matter how powerful evil is, it will
always be defeated by Good. Truth always wins, no matter how vicious or
poisonous lie is because even bitter truth oozes with positivity and the sweetest
lie has the darkest agenda behind it. The win of good over evil is a universal
fate.
45

46. MAHABHARATA
• Mahabharata in Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced is one of
the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism. It narrates the
struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kurukshetra War and the fates
of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes and their successors.
• It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of
the four "goals of life" or puruṣārtha
IMPORTANT CHARACTERS AND THEIR VALUES IN MAHABHARATA
46
CHARACTERS VALUES
KARAN
ARJUNA
ABHIMANYU &
GHATOTHKATCH
KARNAN –
DURYODHANA
PANDAVA
BROTHERS
EKALAIVAN
YUDHISTHIRA
BHIMA
GENEROSITY
COURAGE
COMMITMENT
TRUE FRIENDSHIP
UNITY
DISCIPLINE
PATIENCE
OBEDIENCE

47. Puranas
• Sanskrit meaning of purāṇa is ‘of ancient time’. • Literature of Vedic tradition. • Written
almost entirely in narrative couplets. • Earliest written versions were compiled during
the Gupta empire. The The Puranas are known for the intricate layers of symbolism
depicted within their stories. Composed originally in Sanskrit and in other Indian
languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu gods such
as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, and Adi Shakti.
• 18 PURANAS
• Agni Bhagavata Bhrama Brahmanda Brahmavaivarta Graruda Kurma Linga
Markandeya Matsya Narada Padma Shiva Skanda Vamana Varaha Vayu Vishnu
• The Matsya Purana is one of the eighteen major Puranas (Mahapurana), and among the
oldest and better preserved in the Puranic genre of Sanskrit literature in Hinduism.
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48. KAUTILYA: THE ARTHASHASTRA
• Kautilya: Kautilya is believed to be the chief adivser of
Chandragupta Maurya.
• Kautilya’s Arthashtra, a book on statecraft was written in the
Maurya period in 4th century B.C.
• The text was divided into 15chapters known as books. Different
books deal with different subject matters.
• Polity
• Economy
• Society
• The king’s duties, the code of conduct of officers, agriculture and
industry, taxation, the inter-state relations etc. were all detailed in
the work.
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49. CONT..
• Kautilya mentioned seven elements essential for a state namely:-
– Swami –(King)
– Janapada –(People)
– Amatya –(Ministers)
– Danda –(Sovereignty)
– Kosha –(Treasury)
– Durga –(Fort-Defence)
– Mitra –(Foreign Relations
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra regards the king to be the key in the working of the
state administrative machinery.
• Education of the princes
• Duties of the king
• Selection of ministers
• Organisation of the different departments of the state
• Justice
• Taxation
• Foreign policy etc 49

50. CONT..
 Kautilya separated ethics from politics.
• He was of the view that the king may resort to ruthless approach for the
security and safety of the empire.
• But this does not mean that the king was immoral.
• Kautilya lays much stress on morality in the personal life of the king.
• King should have full control over his senses viz., lust, anger, greed, vanity,
haughtiness and pleasure, because they have often brought the downfall of
various kingdoms.
 Kautilya’s work is far more varied-and entertaining-than usual accounts of its
indication. He mixes the harsh pragmatism for which he is famed with
compassion for the poor, for slaves,and for women. He reveals the imagination
of a romancer in imagining all manner of scenarios which can hardly have
been common place in real life.
50

51. CONT..
 According to Kautilya -ideal of kingship
• He should be a conqueror
• Powerful army
• Win over the enemy kings
• Employ all fair or treacherous methods to win the war
 Kautilya describes how a king may retain his power or preserve his life
after he has been overthrown as below:
• Contrivances to kill the enemy may be formed in those places of
worship and visit, which the enemy, under the influence of faith.
• A wall or stone, kept by mechanical contrivance, may, by loosening the
fastenings, be let to fall on the head of the enemy.
• Under the plea of giving him flowers, scented powers.
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52. BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE
IN PALI, PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT
52

53. 1) The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical
persons or incidents. The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali,
which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar.
2) The Buddhist works can be divided in the canonical and the non-
canonical.
3) The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is,
three baskets – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life.
• Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and
deals with Dharma
• Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It
includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology,
theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.

54. 4) The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas
are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha.
• It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha
practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many cases
even in the form of animals.
• Each birth story is called a Jataka.
• The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic
conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC.
• They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the
Buddha.

55. 5) The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the
sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat.
• The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,
Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
• Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made
to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri,
(twelfth century AD).
• Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar.
• These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the
political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

56. Telugu Literature, Kannada Literature,Malayalam
Literature ,Sangama Literature

59. What is Sangam literature?
• The Sangam literature was historically known as 'the poetry of the noble
ones'. In literal terms, Sangam means 'association' and the literature that
connotes ancient Tamil literature is known as Sangam literature. It is South
India's earliest known literature.
• Sangam writings are possibly unique in early Indian literature, which
is almost entirely religious. The poems are concerned with two main
topics: those of the first five collections are on love (akam), and those of
the next two are on heroism (puram), including the praise of kings and their
deeds.
• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathikaram and
Manimegalai
• Who is the father of Sangam literature?
• The Ancient Tamil Siddhar Agastaya is traditionally believed to have
chaired the first Tamil Sangam in Madurai. As such he is regarded as the
father of Sangam literature.

60. Northern Indian languages and literature
• What are the languages of North India?
• The languages that are official in one or more of the states and union
territories located in North India are Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi,
Kashmiri, Dogri, and English.
• There was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi,
Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati during this time.
• The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of
Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which the
administrative machinery functioned.
• the various dialects that developed in northern and western India.
PrithvirajRaso is supposed to be the first book in Hindi language. It
is an account of exploits of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.

61. CONT..
• Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and
Bharata՚sNatyashastra was kept in mind by Hindi writers. As its
influence reached the north, it started affecting the prose and
poetry that were being composed in Hindi.
• Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsha stage between the 7th and
8th centuries A. D. and the 14th C.
• It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and
poetry. The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and
Tulsidas.
• All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed
their sentiments essentially to satisfy their own devotional
instincts.
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62. 62