1. 1
The Characteristics of Formal and
Informal Leadership in a Member-
based Voluntary Organisation:
Patterns of Leadership Revealed
through Organisational Change in the
Italian Red Cross
By Tiziana Quarta-Bonzon
June, 2014

2. 2
Abstract
Literature reveals that leadership can take different forms, mainly because
those who are willing to take a personal responsibility to serve a given purpose
(leaders) are not only those that occupy a formal position in the organisational
hierarchy. Voluntary organisations like the Italian Red Cross (IRC), face the
complexity of fast evolving environments where leaders are confronted with
daily challenges, requiring specific skills and competences in complex
accountability situations. In addition, IRC leaders have faced more deeply
rooted situations of crisis, calling for profound structural change that is widely
termed privatization by stakeholders.
The aim of this research is to identify what leadership roles and practices were
key for the change process recently undergone by the IRC. The central
proposition to be tested is that the appropriate leadership forms are changing as
the IRC's governance and accountability systems restructure.
A mixed method approach was adopted to studying this problem, using
information gathered from academic sources and from the perspective of senior
titular leaders of the IRC, as well as key volunteers.
Findings suggest that effectiveness is derived from an organisational approach
where leadership is practiced at different layers of the organisation. While the
research would indicate that formal positions matter, because carrying a sense
of legitimacy, practice confirmed that it is the collective dynamic that takes the
organisation on a given path.

3. 3
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the President of the Italian Red Cross (IRC),
Francesco Rocca, for allowing this research project to take place in the context
of his National Society. Special thanks go to all the volunteers and staff of the
IRC who have provided meaningful time and reflections on the reform process.
Peer-reviewers of this report included Jean-Etienne Brodier and Ian Steed,
Organizational Development experts from the IFRC1
, whose comments were
invaluable.
Finally, the author wishes to thank Prof. Paul Davis, from Robert Kennedy
College, for his guidance, constructive criticisms and always prompt advice.
Declaration of Authenticity
I declare that the material contained in this project is the end result of my own
work and that due acknowledgement has been given in the bibliography and
references to all sources, be they printed, electronic or personal.
1
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)

4. 4
Table of Contents
1 Chapter 1 – Introduction.......................................................................................6
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................6
1.2 Purpose of Research.....................................................................................7
1.3 Organisational Background ...........................................................................8
1.4 Research question, objectives and hypotheses...........................................10
1.5 Methodology................................................................................................11
1.6 Outcome......................................................................................................11
1.7 Structure of the Dissertation ........................................................................11
2 Chapter 2 - Literature Review ............................................................................13
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................13
2.2 Concepts, models and context applicability.................................................14
2.2.1 Charisma versus Resilience..................................................................15
2.2.2 Contextual leadership: more than just situational adaptability...............17
2.2.3 Democratic or Monocratic leadership?..................................................20
2.2.4 Following the wrong leader: the importance of purpose........................22
2.3 Conclusions.................................................................................................24
3 Chapter 3 – Methodology...................................................................................25
3.1 Method.........................................................................................................25
3.2 Secondary data collection and analysis.......................................................25
3.3 Primary data collection ................................................................................26
3.4 Primary data analysis ..................................................................................28
3.5 Selection of respondents .............................................................................30
3.6 Limitations of the Research and Researcher’s bias.....................................32
4 Chapter 4 – Research results.............................................................................33
4.1 Introduction and research background ........................................................33
4.2 Findings.......................................................................................................33
4.2.1 Objective 1: leadership practices at the IRC .........................................33
4.2.2 Objective 2: specificities of leadership in the IRC context.....................39
4.2.3 Objective 3: patterns of leadership during the reform period.................45
4.3 Discussion ...................................................................................................54

5. 5
5 Chapter 5 – Conclusions....................................................................................57
5.1 Conclusions on Research Results...............................................................57
5.2 Recommendations.......................................................................................62
5.3 Limitations and future directions ..................................................................63
6 Chapter 6 ...........................................................................................................65
6.1 References ..................................................................................................65
6.2 Bibliography.................................................................................................68
Appendix A: Summary of presented leadership models and theories.......................70
Appendix B: Questionnaire .......................................................................................75

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1 Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1 Introduction
It is commonly expected that the primary responsibility to effectively manage an
organisation lies with the senior leadership of a given institution. Effective
leadership is therefore seen as the main resource for organisational change and
management but is often understood as being limited to “formal leadership”.
The ability to articulate a vision and influence people to work towards achieving
a set goal is therefore the expected key characteristic of a “formal” leader in any
type of organisational situation. This common belief is however challenged by
several empirical studies and practices, undertaken both in the profit and non-
profit environment (Barnes & Kriger, 1986; Doig, 1988; Murphy, 1988; Clarke,
2010; Battilana & Casciaro, 2013)
Leadership can take different forms and this applies equally to the voluntary
sector, mainly because those who are willing to take a personal responsibility to
serve a given purpose are not only those that occupy a formal position in the
organisational hierarchy. The concept of volunteers’ leadership is commonly
recognised in the sector to the point that specific development programs exist to
build volunteers’ leadership competencies and skills2
.
If a leader is here defined as the person that inspires and mobilises people to
do things, showing the strategic direction and creating the enabling environment
for a goal to be achieved, then volunteers can play a critical role in leading
without being formally charged to do so.
Voluntary organisations like the Italian Red Cross (IRC) increasingly face the
complexity of fast evolving environments where conflicting demands from
multiple stakeholders often put their survival at stake. In such contexts, leaders
are confronted with daily as well as more deeply rooted situations of crisis,
where it becomes essential to remain pragmatic while continuing to inspire
hope. Here, their professional competences, their ability to scan the
2
For example the Volunteer leadership training programme run by the Swedish Red Cross or by the American Red
Cross. Information available on their respective web-sites.

7. 7
environment and their reading of the challenges and opportunities ahead are
put to the test and trust can be maintained only if “walking the talk” occurs
(Boyle, 2010).
It is plausible that periods of organizational change, such as those the IRC is
going through, may require the type of leadership skills that are found in leaders
working in emergency situations. In such circumstances, those in “charge” are
expected to stay lucid, to direct while at the same time empower, to be
outwardly focused while showing personal commitment to achieving the goal
(Kolditz, 2007; Piper, 2012; Rashi, Edmondson & Leonard, 2013).
While research on the topic of leadership and how theory applies to the non-
profit sector have been conducted, there is still limited knowledge of the
different patterns of leadership in member-based voluntary organisations (as
the Literature Review set out below contends).
1.2 Purpose of Research
The purpose of this research is to study the role and different forms of formal
and informal leadership that are to be found in a member-based voluntary
organisation, particularly during periods of turmoil. The term “formal” is here
taken to mean leadership associated with position and official authority. It is
opposed to “informal” leadership, which is the result of a person's ability to lead
others in an often democratic way, independently from officially sanctioned
status.
By studying how and to what extent “formal and informal” leadership influences
organisational change in the IRC, the research will address a knowledge gap on
the characteristics of leadership within a voluntary organization and, more
generally, the voluntary sector as a whole.

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1.3 Organisational Background
The Italian Red Cross is one of 189 National Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies that exist around the world, forming the unique network of the
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. National Societies
support public authorities in their respective countries as independent auxiliaries
to the government in the humanitarian field. They are made up of volunteers
and staff and provide a broad range of humanitarian and social services.
Each National Society is an independent and autonomous legal entity that
operates with regard to humanitarian values and the 7 fundamental principles of
the Red Cross, i.e. Humanity, Impartiality, Independence, Neutrality, Unity,
Universality and Voluntary 3
.
In the Italian context, the IRC is one of approximately 4,000 voluntary
associations active on Italian territory. It delivers services through a network of
150,000 active volunteers and 4,000 paid staff, distributed across 635
committees, ensuring a coverage and a proximity to the communities it serves
without equal.4
Until the revision of its statutes in May 2005, the IRC had the legal status of a
public entity, operating as part of the Italian public sector, while at the same
time adhering to the fundamental principles of the Red Cross Movement – a
situation of dual and complex accountability.
With the adoption of the new statutes, the IRC started a process of
“privatization”, gradually becoming a voluntary association in legal and
operational terms, mandated by the government to deliver services of public
interest. This process is expected to be completed by the end of 2015.
As a public entity, the IRC was financially dependent on the Italian government,
and was subject to multiple government interferences through the appointment
of “Extraordinary Commissioners”. The main justification for these interferences
3
See The 7 Fundamental Principles on the IFRC web-side, http://www.ifrc.org/en/who-we-are/vision-and-
mission/the-seven-fundamental-principles/
4
Figures taken from Annual Report, 2012, available at
http://cri.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/8895

9. 9
came from the need to address financial difficulties, caused by a complex
organisational set-up. This structure required reform to remain relevant both
domestically and internationally.
In October 2008, a new Extraordinary Commissioner was appointed to replace
the President in charge, and address a large financial deficit. Organisational
structure and services were reviewed and thanks to several implemented
measures, the National Society was able, in 2011, to close its financial books
and launch several reforms of a legal and organisational nature. In 2013, a new
President was elected.
While the need to address a financial crisis was the triggering factor of the
reform, the underlying driving force, namely, a quest for change and
independence, came from the volunteers.
Prior to the reform, the IRC had six voluntary components, functioning as sub-
organisations and in parallel to a structure made up of geographically spread5
committees which had limited influence and played mainly an administrative
role.
The abolition of these voluntary components and the ensuing creation of one
voluntary body6
that operates by responding to common objectives, was the key
organisational change of the reform. It was one that sought to profoundly modify
the previous “centres of power” which were the main cause of a silo-culture and
internal competition for resources.
Today, leadership patterns appear to have changed, becoming less
hierarchical, and more democratic, as the analysis of primary data to be
undertaken below will demonstrate.
5
At local, provincial, regional and national level
6
With the exception of two auxiliary bodies who remained separate (Corpo Militare and Crocerossine)

10. 10
1.4 Research question, objectives and hypotheses
To answer the research question: What leadership roles and practices were key
for the change process recently undergone by the Italian Red Cross?, the
Researcher considered the following five interrelated hypotheses:
H1. Organisational change is successful when top leaders do not solely rely on
their individual traits and styles to drive the process but succeed in putting
followers in the driving seat.
H2. Organisational change is successful when leaders, formal or informal, are
able to influence their context (and the corollary to this is that context influences
leadership and organisational change).
H3. Effective voluntary organisations are people-oriented and effectively use
shared leadership approaches to deliver on their mission.
H4. Transformational leadership has a greater effect on organizational change
when it is people-oriented.
H5. Clarity of ethical purpose is essential for value-driven people who are
undergoing periods of organisational change and increases the chances of
success of the organisational change process.
The research focus is situated within relevant theoretical backgrounds as
identified in the Literature Review chapter, which have informed the articulation
of these hypotheses for research testing.
In so doing, the research seeks to explore the following discrete objectives:
to identify leadership practices at the IRC. It does this by exploring who
(regardless of formal position) takes initiatives to influence and mobilise people
and resources and to realise a given mission;
to identify specificities of leadership in the given context facing the IRC. This is
to be done with specific reference to contextual leadership models and will
assess whether such models were adopted de facto at different levels of the
organization;

11. 11
to describe the specific patterns of leadership in the IRC while confronted with
internal and external challenges during a period of legitimacy crisis, change and
reforms.
1.5 Methodology
A mixed method approach is adopted, using information which is gathered from
relevant academic sources and from the perspective of formal leaders,
employees and volunteers of the organization, both at national headquarters
and branch level, as further elaborated in Chapter 3 of this dissertation.
1.6 Outcome
The main intended outcome of this project is a critical analysis of leadership
practice found in the area of investigation, and presented as an extension of
existing theory into specific circumstances.
Findings provide an external perspective to the IRC on the change process. The
Researcher has been mandated by the Organisational Development
Department of the IFRC Secretariat, in agreement with the IRC, and was
allowed to explore leadership patterns from different organisational angles. The
mandate meant that she had to be very mindful of ethical and confidentiality
requirements in undertaking and reporting on the research. She is an employee
of the IFRC and may therefore be said to have a degree of both pre-cognition
and pre-understanding.
1.7 Structure of the Dissertation
The dissertation adopts the following structure:
Chapter 1 – Introduction
It introduces the dissertation topic, research aims and questions.
Chapter 2 – Literature review

12. 12
The literature review subjects the many articles and papers available to critical
assessment, so as to identify research relevant to the research questions.
Chapter 3 – Methodology
This chapter provides details of the research approach, data gathering, and
analysis.
Chapter 4 – Research Results
This chapter presents the results of research gathered from the interview data.
Chapter 5 – Conclusions
This chapter presents an analysis of the findings in relation to the research
questions and the literature review. It also includes recommendations and
discusses any limitations of the research as well as future directions.
Chapter 6 – References
This chapter presents a bibliography of the sources used to gather research for
this dissertation.

13. 13
2 Chapter 2 - Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present secondary research on specific
aspects of the topic of leadership. Several theoretical concepts were identified
as relevant to the objectives of this research and their study has led to the
identification of five interrelated hypotheses, as set out in the introductory
chapter, which were tested during the primary data analysis phase.
The review begins with a discussion of concepts of individual and organisational
leadership, as found relevant to the voluntary sector. For each concept,
research limitations are highlighted. A table summarising explored theory and
context applicability is included in Appendix A.
As a preamble, it must be noted that the Researcher had some difficulty to find
peer-reviewed research on the topic of leadership as it specifically relates to the
voluntary sector, and even more so as it relates to this sector in the Italian
environment. This apparent gap in a sense confirmed the need for this piece of
work and further research in the future. To compensate for this lack of material,
the Researcher analysed available literature related to the public and non-profit
sectors, also exploring non-Western based empirical studies. This was done
with the purpose of finding potentially applicable concepts to the subject of this
research.
Volunteer-based organisations have similarities with the public sector and the
non-profit sector, in a broader sense. For example, they share with the non-
profit sector the challenge of balancing economic with social dimensions,
financial sustainability with mission achievement, as well as increasing
demands for transparency and accountability (Costa, Ramus, Andreaus, 2011).
These demands require specific leadership skills and approaches.
With the public sector, they share not only the underlying motivation of people
working within it, namely, to contribute to a common good and social value, but

14. 14
also the increasing complexity of dealing with conflicting internal and external
demands from different stakeholders (Cristofoli, Nasi, Turrini, 2011).
In the context of the IRC, it was felt necessary to explore available literature as
it relates to the public sector, and as much as possible in the Italian political and
social environment. This was because of the organisational shift underway at
the IRC from being a public institution to becoming a private, volunteer-based
organisation.
Information was taken from selected academic journals and review magazines
such as Voluntas, other journals specialised in public management, as well as
relevant university sources, as detailed in the Bibliography. This review has
equally examined professional, elite-grey research carried out by humanitarian
and development practitioners in the field of leadership.
Information was obtained by accessing relevant material provided on the topic
of leadership during this Master course, and by conducting on-line inquiry
through search engines such as Google and e-libraries such as QUEST.
Key search terms used to interrogate these resources were numerous, but
included: “voluntary-sector leadership”, “non-profit sector leadership”,
“emergency leadership”, “shared leadership”, “ethical leadership”, “purposive
leadership”, “contextual leadership”, “leadership and organisational change”,
“transformational leadership”, as well as known names of scholars7
.
2.2 Concepts, models and context applicability
Extensive literature exists on the topic of leadership, although these are largely
North American and business-oriented. The main focus of existing research,
has been to identify the key personality traits of the effective leader, but it has
also sought to identify how different situations may promote or hamper
successful leadership.
7
such as Peter F. Drucker, John P. Kotter, Jim Collins, Daniel Goleman

15. 15
The notion of the individual leader versus multiple leaders, or shared leadership
(Slater and Doig, 1988) has also been studied. Yet, the concept and application
of organisational leadership (Barnes and Kriger, 1986) or the invisible
leadership (Murphy, 1988), in particular in the voluntary sector, has not been
explored extensively. These concepts all point to an important distinction
between the formally stated and realised practice, or between the individual and
collective in mobilising leadership to attain practical ends.
Conclusions reached by previous research show that each theory has its
limitations, as further elaborated in the following sections of this chapter.
2.2.1 Charisma versus Resilience
The traits-model (Bass, 1960; Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948, 1974) is based on the
assertion that leaders are born with specific personal characteristics that may
be functional to leadership work. Many scholars explored trait theory during the
last century. The research concluded that leaders are not born with personal
traits that can be clearly distinguished and replicated. While the claim that
relevant characteristics cannot be nurtured has been widely challenged, the
nature of those relevant characteristics has equally been the subject of dispute.
The concept, for instance, of “charisma”, a key personal trait of the effective
leader, has been challenged by many scholars.
Collins (2005) identified that so-called Level-5 leaders (those at the highest
pyramidal level of a hierarchically organised agency) are not large figures who
accomplish unexpected results. These people, on the contrary, see themselves
as drivers of change, but often attribute success to other factors, such as the
people around them or the environment.
In this reading, the capacity to inspire others is not the result of “charisma” but
of authenticity. Authentic leaders have found the leadership motivation within
themselves, often resulting from difficult life experiences which helped their
personal search for life meaning and developed their capacity to show empathy
and commitment (George, Sims, Mayer, 2007; Bennis and Thomas, 2002).

16. 16
Many have recognized that organizational change requires different kinds of
leadership behaviours which go beyond a charismatic approach. Successful
change requires that the leader be seen more as instrumental in building the
necessary competences, systems and culture to achieve the goals, rather than
being decisive in goal achievement in itself (Nadler & Tushman, 1990).
Because the voluntary sector is believed to be more values-driven, participatory
and less managerial than the for-profit sector, it is also assumed that
hierarchical and formalistic leadership styles are detrimental to the
organization’s fulfilment of its mission (Hailey & James, 2004).
The voluntary sector is part of civil society, and as Drucker (1973) argues, it is
through social and voluntary work that civic leadership has traditionally being
fulfilled. What this idea captures is the capacity to lead social change and
influence matters of public utility (Chrislip & O’Malley, 2013). While this notion of
civic leadership has changed over time, because social responsibility is now
also the concern of the for-profit sector, the voluntary sector continues to
influence civil society, through a type of leadership that is detached from
position and authority. It is a type of leadership that is more effectively exerted
through leaders acting as facilitators, conveners and catalysts of change
(Chrislip & O'Malley, 2013).
Emerging leadership thinking seems to point to the need for more adaptive and
resilient leaders, where personal “resilience” would replace “charisma”, because
it allows a broader and less self-centred perspective. It denotes a capacity to
handle evolving demands, because such leaders are able to put others’ needs
first, are capable of instilling values and new mind-sets and surround
themselves with capable collaborators. They would do so, without fearing
judgement or criticism (Kim and Hays, 2010).
The idea of resilience comes from the social psychological state called
mindfulness, which is the ability to be aware of one’s actions and behaviour and
as such have the capacity to adapt to different circumstances. This leads to
self-compassion and acceptance of the vulnerabilities in others. Mindfulness is

17. 17
the foundation of cultural sensibility and a key requirement for leaders working
in global and multi-cultural environments (Armstrong, 2012).
2.2.2 Contextual leadership: more than just situational
adaptability
The situational leadership model seeks to complement the traits-model. This
attributes leaders ‘success or failure not so much to their personal leading
capacities, but to favourable or less favourable conditions in a given situation.
Circumstances would therefore determine whether a person would lead or
remain a follower. However, this model was contested because it was not
sufficient to foresee what forms of leadership are most effective in a given
situation (Hoy & Miskel, 1987).
An evolution of this model may be the contextual leadership one, whereby
context is defined as an organizational environment with its unique
characteristics and dynamics. The context requires specific leadership skills of
people that are able to select the right tools for the job (Macris, 2006), and
create a context for others to succeed. The level of influence that can be
exerted also depends on the specificities of the context. Leaders working in the
voluntary sector, for instance, generally have low levels of influence because
they are unable to use the same type of disciplinary and reward systems that
would be applicable to the for-profit sector or to a strongly hierarchical
organisation (for example, the Military), and have to use motivational skills and
a consensual approach to make things happen (Macris, 2006).
Context is closely linked to organizational culture, because it may define the
perceptions of both leader(s) and followers on what is possible and appropriate.
It can therefore strongly influence organizational change, either positively or
negatively. It is the context dimension that must be assessed, particularly when
trying to change it (Macris, 2006). This, in turn, requires relational skills such as
the ability to build team-work, manage networks, and enact constructive two-
way communication.
Context is one of the five dimensions of culture identified by Hofstede (1980). In
his reading, culture can be of a low or high context type, depending on the

18. 18
emphasis that a culture places on the message versus what motivates
communication. In a high-context culture, the focus is on how things are
communicated and by whom, rather than on the message itself. Contrarily, low-
context cultures are more interested in facts, accuracy, and leaner
communication often expressed in written form (Sapienza, 2008). Power-
Distance is another dimension of culture which affects context, and this is
concerned with the extent to which people accept unequal power distribution in
a society (Sapienza, 2008).
These cultural and communicative concepts are key when trying to understand
what contextual leadership means in different societies and organisations. For
instance, a study of NGOs working in South Asia (Hailey and James, 2004)
highlighted that current Western leadership concepts are not always relevant to
their high-context culture. What may be seen as detrimental in Western terms,
is viewed as perfectly appropriate to the strategic approach adopted by Asian
NGO leaders. The study emphasises the crucial role of the individual leader in
the development and growth of the organisation. Their ability to balance
personal integrity with community engagement, while respecting the high power
distance dimension that is common to their culture, is what made their
leadership successful (Hailey and James, 2004).
Still looking at context, the notion of leadership of place proposed by Gibney
and Murie (2008), appears to put contextual and environmental dynamics at the
centre of leadership. It challenges traditional silo-based, disciplinary and
departmental approaches by proposing more participatory, cross-boundary and
trust-driven ones, where only collaborative efforts can lead to achieving
common outcomes. The authors define place as a complex environment which
is often policy-driven, long-term and vision-led, multi-layered and multi-
disciplinary. In such contexts, successful leaders show the capacity to adopt
holistic and integrated approaches that allow them to work in innovative ways,
pool resources, avoid territorialism and disavow hierarchy, function or
geographical aspects. Some characteristics of leadership of place would include
an organisational capacity to lead without formal power, to maintain

19. 19
commitment over time and make things happen through the use of networks
and relations.
Context may also be associated with the notion of situational urgency or a
status of legitimacy crisis. Organisations' stakeholders may feel urgency for
change because the status quo threatens their survival (Luenerburger and
Goleman, 2010). In such cases, it is the context that influences leadership,
rather than the other way around. Whatever actions leaders take, these would
be the reactive measures to address a situation of crisis. Yet, addressing these
would require the necessary legitimacy and power, from leaders, for these
measures to be applied. Leaders who face these kinds of contexts must
possess a strong capacity to convince and build buy-in while at the same time
prioritising efforts to get things done (Leuneburger and Goleman, 2010).
Another stance is that context is a perception and people inherit it (Macris,
2006). When context is a situation of crisis, it is people and their working climate
that are at risk. Periods of organisational turmoil thus have much in common
with emergency humanitarian contexts, where the theory of emergency
leadership would seem applicable. Humanitarian operations require leaders to
act rapidly, address tension between achieving short and long-term objectives,
handle decision-making pressure and take decisions that cannot rely on
previous best practices as the situation may be completely different (Clarke,
2010).
Leadership lessons drawn from the Chilean Mine Rescue operation, confirm the
importance of collective efforts shaped by leaders who embrace a concept of
duality and adopt contradictory approaches. These situations require both
control and empowerment, where leaders commit to a determined effort but not
necessarily to a successful outcome, and are able to calmly influence while
setting boundaries to follow the chosen path (Rashid, Edmondson & Leonard,
2013).
A directive and coercive style that aims at breaking failed business habits,
creating valuable chaos that would generate new ways of working can be the

20. 20
best leadership style in a situation of organisational crisis, but only if it remains
limited in time and strictly linked to a clearly communicated goal (Goleman,
2000). That said, leaders' behaviours must be of a chameleon-type and always
put in the contexts in which leadership takes place (Hailey & James, 2004;
Clarke, 2010).
2.2.3 Democratic or Monocratic leadership?
The model of shared leadership (Slater and Doig, 1988) also appears to offer
potential in understanding patterns for organisations facing extensive
redirection.
Shared or distributed leadership, which is commonly perceived as being more
democratic in nature, can succeed when the organisation is able to move away
from silos-based to more participatory approaches. This implies a well-
functioning “relational” system where all levels of the organisation collaborate
and interact harmoniously, enjoy similar influence levels and this despite
different specific realities and often conflicting demands (Gibney & Murie, 2008).
Shared leadership can take different forms, while degrees of decision-making
power can vary according to the assigned level of accountability. This does not
imply dispensing with the individual leader but rather valuing leaders who act
more like facilitators and are less directional (Gibney & Murie, 2008; Clarke,
2010).
Research shows, however, that the concept of shared leadership, when
intended as “shared power”, has little application in non-Western cultures, or at
least not in the way it is understood in the West. In East Asia for instance, and
in some African societies, a leader’s major responsibility is to maintain harmony
with ordered social and organisational relationships where power is unequally
distributed. Leaders do not place emphasis on autonomy and self-assertion, but
on collective performance and interpersonal relations. Formal leaders in these
cultural environments do not have to win their followers' satisfaction or consent,
as their legitimacy is given. However, respect and a capacity to show care and
concern is usually expected, because social disturbances would be negatively

21. 21
perceived. In periods of transition a more paternalistic leader figure is often
favoured (Blunt & Jones, 1996).
Even in the West, leadership styles which would appear more democratic
because they favour consultation, consensus and delegation of authority may
not always deliver the expected results in terms of performance. When
overused, these approaches may lead to poor decision making, perceived lack
of leadership, lack of control and loss of authority, which would ultimately cause
stress to the followers (Faraci, Lock & Wheeler, 2013).
The problem with shared leadership is that it may not be the best model to
apply when an organisation is in a phase of transition or experiencing a crisis
situation. A study by ALNAP focusing on humanitarian leaders praises the
advantages of shared leadership, such as allowing multiple perspectives, skill-
sets, or diversity (Clarke, 2010). Yet, ALNAP also highlight the fragility of the
model, especially when an organisation faces ambiguous, risky and
unpredictable circumstances. Here, the concept of “all leaders, all captains”
may fail, either because the leaders’ nominal or informal authority is not
recognized, or because people abdicate their own responsibility and refuse to
be held accountable (Clarke, 2010).
This is when transformational leadership of a monocratic type, would seem
more appropriate, although theory appears at times contradictory to what is
expected from a transformational leader (Burns, 1978). Because change is
personal, leaders must win followers one by one, first by leading by example,
then by demonstrating innovating mentalities, and connecting different pieces of
the organisation through common values, beliefs and a shared vision (Duck,
1993).
Kotter (2007) maintains that transformation is a process which happens through
different stages, each requiring different leadership skills. Transformational
leaders are therefore asked to be inspired and inspirational, providing direction
and the means for fulfilling it, empowering people without abandoning them,

22. 22
generating energy, trust and hope while at the same time improvising and
adapting, hence inevitably causing distress (Kim & Hays, 2010).
Pearce and Sims (2002) re-introduce here the charismatic theory, perhaps
prematurely dismissed above, where role modelling and engaging in impression
management are key traits transformational leaders need to exhibit to raise
confidence and gain alignment.
Transformational leaders who may reflect these key traits, are not however
unconditionally successful in attracting their followers and achieving expected
performance. A field experiment conducted in an Italian public institution on the
performance effect of transformational leadership (Bellé, 2014) has shown that
emphasis on the mission and the capacity to move away from rhetoric into
tangible results were key elements that produced the expected results (Bellé,
2014).
Transformational and shared leadership are not mutually exclusive. While the
first may carry a stronger vertical and directive dimension, both styles contain
key elements of empowerment. Both approaches emphasise follower
development of self-management and self-leading skills, where leading means
helping others to lead themselves and where influence is both vertical and peer-
driven (Pierce & Sims, 2002).
2.2.4 Following the wrong leader: the importance of purpose
Leadership as purpose (Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011) is seen as an
aspect of leadership that may be of particular relevance to cause-related
organisations like the IRC. The theory may be especially relevant in an
organisational context where contributing to a “common good” and not to egoist
personal interests is seen as an essential motivating factor.
As Kempster, Jackson & Conroy (2011) assert, purpose within leadership is
often taken for granted and is mostly associated with results. However, purpose

23. 23
has a social value and when its orientation is implicit, its manifestation may end
up having a very negative impact on society8
.
Research carried out in Italy (Marta, Guglielmetti & Pozzi, 2006) has shown that
young adult volunteers are attracted to voluntary organisations because they
can identify with their values and community concern, both of which are
altruistic motivations. A number of personal gains, such as gaining experience
for job search or improved self-esteem, are also part of the decision-making
process, but only those that remain primarily concerned with serving the
community, tend to linger in their volunteer role (Marta, Guglielmetti & Pozzi,
2006).
Voluntary sector leaders are above all expected to orient the organisation
towards a meaningful goal, prioritising what has the highest impact on achieving
the mission versus favouring economic and financial dimensions (Costa, Ramus
& Andreaus, 2011).
This is becoming increasingly challenging, because voluntary organisations are
taking on more public services which governments are not able to provide. Such
a move requires different leadership styles, management approaches and
systems which may affect the ability of the voluntary organisation to remain true
to its original mission and mandate (Harris, 2000). These practices lead to
goals displacement because they push the sector to increased dependence on
money, power and status to the detriment of the real purpose of the sector or
organisational existence, which is meeting the needs of the community and not
only responding to targets (Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011).
All of the above reinforces the need for leaders to emphasise a sense of
purpose, help people to reconnect to ethics and find the emotional engagement
and motivation that helps the organisation fulfil its mission (Kempster, Jackson
& Conroy, 2011).
At this point, the idea of the Servant Leader, as someone standing for what is
good and right and not only financially viable, assumes relevance (Kempster,
8
For example, Hitler: a powerful leader with the wrong purpose in mind

24. 24
Jackson & Conroy, 2011; Kim and Hays, 2010). When values are at the core of
leaders’ decisions and behaviours and when these leaders do not hesitate to
defend those qualities, these individuals become models of ethics who can
powerfully drive organisational transformations (Kim and Hays, 2010).
2.3 Conclusions
This literature review has highlighted the challenges that leadership presents in
the context of voluntary sector organisations, confirming the complexity that
surrounds the notion of leadership particularly during periods of change. Among
the variety of traditional and more recent models of leadership, the Researcher
has chosen to utilize a selected number of these because of their identified
applicability to the dissertation context and their relevance to the research
findings elaborated in Chapter 4.

25. 25
3 Chapter 3 – Methodology
3.1 Method
This chapter outlines the method used by the Researcher to explore the
different patterns of leadership in the IRC, as revealed during a period of
organisational change. A mixed method approach was adopted, using
information gathered from both relevant academic sources and from the
perspective of formal leaders, employees and volunteers of the organization,
both at national headquarters and branch level.
Because the initial intent was to explore existing theory on the topic of
leadership and how this applied to the given context, the method started as
more “top-down” with the identification of research hypotheses and questions.
However, when conducting the primary data collection, a more inductive
reasoning surfaced. This sought to provide a conceptual space for more
grounded observations which at times challenged examined theory (Crossman,
2014).
The approach taken turned out to be primarily based on a non-positivist position
which argues that all knowledge is “constructed” in as much as it is contingent
on convention, human perception, and social experience (Luffrum, 2013). The
definition of “truth” becomes therefore a subjective perception, influenced by
how reality is perceived and interpreted by the individual. While hypotheses
were formulated and tested to some extent - a typical positivist approach9
- the
Researcher moved throughout the process to a stronger focus on meanings
and context becoming, herself, part of what was being observed, and
developing ideas from real data (Graneheim and Lundman, 2003).
3.2 Secondary data collection and analysis
The secondary data analysis was conducted through a desk review of recent
trends in leadership theory, with regard to the models identified in Chapter 2.
9
from its founder, the sociologist Auguste Comte, 1798-1857

26. 26
As typical in a deductive approach, the secondary analysis was more
concerned with the identification of recurrent concepts (Crossman, 2014) which
the Researcher then sought to test in the context of the IRC.
One product of the desk review was the identification of the five hypotheses this
research aims to test which informed the primary data collection and analysis
phase as described below.
3.3 Primary data collection
Primary data was collected through interviews held during the month of March,
2014, in two geographic locations, namely in Rome at the national central
committee, and at the co-located provincial committee, as well as in Torino at
the regional committee and in the local committee of Moncalieri, situated in the
province of Torino.
A questionnaire including open-ended questions was developed and translated
into Italian (see Appendix B). The questionnaire was not intended for self-
completion but was used by the Researcher as an interview guide to shape
semi-structured encounters when conducting individual interviews and group
discussions. Piloting was not possible because of limited time available prior to
the visits on site. The questionnaire was, however, checked for relevance and
applicability by Organisational Development experts working for the IFRC in
Geneva.
The questionnaire was made up of three parts, including Introductory questions
designed to get to know the respondents and the way they saw the IRC
operating in their daily working life. This was then followed by Part 1 made up of
individual questions aimed at testing what theory reveals with respect to the
research hypotheses and Part 2, made up of questions to support a group
discussion.
Prior to each interview, respondents were asked to carry out an exercise which
aimed at revealing their own leadership understanding and learning through

27. 27
lived experience. The Researcher was influenced by Kempster's (2009)
approach, where he asked respondents to draw a timeline and identify from
their earliest memories, figures that had influenced their respective leadership,
both in a positive and negative way. Each interview started with questions
related to the participants’ memories of events and people they had found
important in their lives.
This approach turned out to be an excellent “ice breaker” and had the
advantage of positioning the participant in a more comfortable and relaxed state
of mind, facilitating the move to the more structured part of the discussion.
As Charmaz (1995, 2000, 2006) found in his applications of constructivist
grounded theory, data is constructed through an on-going interaction between
the researcher and participant, an interaction that is built not just by how the
questions are asked but also by how the interviewer looks, sounds and is
perceived (Hallberg, 2006).
Thus, research relationship principles such as trust, empathy, time, relevance
and experience were applied. (Kempster, 2009). Through the application of
such principles, the Researcher positioned herself as an outsider in the eyes of
the respondents, because she is not affiliated to the IRC, but comes from the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which is a
separate institution belonging to the Red Cross Movement and based in
Geneva. This position allowed her to maintain a neutral role in the conversation,
although the fact that she shared the same cultural origin (being Italian herself)
and demonstrated a professional background of relevance, gave her the
necessary credibility and trustworthiness. This resulted in a shared sense of
understanding of revealed experiences and earned senior managers and
leaders' explicit commitment of to contribute meaningful time and reflections to
the research (Kempster, 2009).
The option of conducting a traditional survey, with multiple-choice questions
was discounted, as found too impersonal and leading to selective bias (Lester,
1999).

28. 28
3.4 Primary data analysis
For the primary data analysis, a qualitative approach, involving both narrative
analysis and grounded theory aspects, was adopted. The underlying
assumption was that the reality presented by the different informants would
depend on subjective interpretation. The Researcher had therefore to find a
flexible method that would allow an understanding of the latent content or
underlying meaning through the creation of themes (Graneheim and Lundman,
2003).
As suggested by Riessman (cited in Duque, 2010), the Researcher focused on
narrative inquiry through interviewing and transcription of interviews, where
"interviews were seen as narrative occasions" (Riessman, 2008, as cited in
Duque, 2010) or opportunities for the participants to tell their story, obviously
involving strong personal interpretation.
Both deductive and inductive research approaches prompt in people what is
called “conditional reasoning”, where the individual draws a conclusion based
on a conditional, or “if…then,” proposition.10
By adopting a more inductive
approach during the interviewing phase, the Researcher favoured the
development of plausible answers to these matters of causality rather than
validation (or not) of proposed theoretical hypotheses. This conditional
reasoning pattern was confirmed by several empirical studies, whereby “validity
predicts endorsement under deductive instructions and plausibility predicts
endorsement under inductive instructions” (Singmann & Klauer, 2011,, p. 272).
As such, the approach also contributed to mitigate both respondents' and
researcher’s biases.
The adopted narrative approach also helped to explore tacit knowledge (from
Wengraf, 2001 as cited in Kempster, 2009). This was done through intensive
interviews, which on the surface sounded like ordinary conversations but were
in reality oriented to address the key questions raised by the research. As
typically described in grounded theory, the interviewer was an active participant
10
Definition from Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed at
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1442609/conditional-reasoning

29. 29
in this process, asking additional questions as required (from Charmaz, 2006 as
cited in Hallberg, 2006) while keeping the purpose of the interview constantly in
mind (Duque, 2010).
The use of interviews and group discussions has also helped to mitigate a
respondents' selective bias, more commonly encountered through the use of
surveys. This approach has allowed the research to value the individual
perception of reality or of a given situation, through phenomenological analysis
(Lester, 1999).
As such, this approach helped the Researcher to focus on the study of personal
experiences rather than on theory-driven assumptions and preconceptions, thus
drawing conclusions based on practice for further policy development and
learning (Lester, 1999).
Phenomenological approaches are typically applied to single case studies or
selected samples, as here. Because case studies explore practice as applied in
a given context and situation, they can highlight theory and system
weaknesses, hence challenging conventional knowledge. The weakness of
case studies is, however, a poor degree of generalisation of findings to other
contexts or population samples (Lester, 1999).
Because the IRC is a voluntary organisation, providing services nationally,
regionally and locally, the functional role of the branch11
in creating value was
key to the analysis of findings. The way a branch operates can be a revealing
indicator of organisational effectiveness and mission achievement. Interviewing
local actors allowed the Researcher to have a broader understanding of the
current situation and context, and test coherence and consistency of findings
coming from higher layers of the organisation. This approach allowed a certain
degree of data triangulation, which entails gathering data from a variety of
people in different organisational and geographical locations, hence increasing
findings credibility (from Denzin, 1970 as cited in Bryman, 2004).
11
Branch intended as a local, provincial or regional committee

30. 30
One difficult aspect the Researcher paid attention to, was the transcription of
the interviews in the original language and subsequent analysis in the English
language. This is a research aspect that increasingly attracts scholars' attention,
as the final findings and conclusions are influenced by language and culture
and translation plays a critical role in interpretation (Duque, 2010).
Finally, a qualitative content analysis approach with text condensation
(Graneheim and Lundman, 2003), was then used to analyse the primary data.
The Researcher transcribed verbatim all dialogues in Italian and identified
condensed meaning units, underlying meaning units, sub-themes and themes
directly in English. This approach highlighted key themes which were then
compared to the hypotheses of the research, to test their applicability in the
given context.
Below is an example of a reported quote, analysed as presented:
3.5 Selection of respondents
Key respondents were identified jointly with the IRC, a process which
manifested the organisation's support for the research process reported here.
Respondents were drawn both from national headquarters and branch level and
18 participants took part. In Rome, the Researcher had the opportunity to
conduct individual interviews with the National President, the National Vice-
presidents, and senior management staff including the Director General. These
elite interviews therefore addressed all key organizational leaders. Small groups

31. 31
of volunteers were interviewed in semi-structured focus group discussions. In
Torino, additional interviews were conducted with the President of the regional
committee and the President of one local committee.
Other categories of respondents included representatives of the department of
civil protection, a public administration, and of trade unions whose members
include IRC employees who were likely to have been affected by the change
process.
Informants were women and men of several age groups, occupying a variety of
governance, executive, managerial and administrative positions, both as paid
staff and volunteers.
Each interview lasted approximately an hour and was recorded for the primary
purpose of transcription, with the participant’s consent12
.
Ethical principles such as accountability, confidentiality, anti-discrimination,
reciprocity, empowerment, accessibility and respect for professional values
were taken into consideration when carrying out the interviews and analysing
data. For instance, all participants were informed about the purpose of the
study, through a message sent to all by a staff member of the IRC central
committee, who also communicated the Terms of Reference of the research as
well as the interview questionnaire.
Before each interview, participants were informed again of the scope of the
research, that their contributions were going to be kept confidential, and that
information was going to be aggregated to allow an identification of trends and
common themes.
The same ethical considerations were taken into account when findings were
disseminated. Before public release, findings were to be communicated and
discussed with the IRC to confirm factuality rather than relevance of
conclusions, with the understanding that participants' contributions remained
confidential.
12
All interviews were conducted during the month of March as mentioned under 3.3

32. 32
3.6 Limitations of the Research and Researcher’s bias
Biased research interpretation is not uncommon, particularly when the adopted
methodology is of an interpretative nature. There is however a difference
between intentional and non-intentional bias. The underlying motivations may
be obvious if directed to achieving a specific purpose (for example, where the
research is to function as Advocacy) or more sub-consciously expressed
through the desire of simply presenting different opinions (McCoun, 1998).
It should, however, be noted that by collecting the same data and information
from different sources, and by adopting a combination of theoretical positions in
interpreting data, as well as more than one method of obtaining data, some
triangulation of results has taken place. This mitigates the risk of favouring
individual perspectives and lowering the impact of the Researcher’s bias
(Bryman, 2004).
In terms of transferability of findings to other organisational contexts, each
context being unique, it would seem inappropriate to apply the conclusions of
this research to other settings. That being said, the research will provide
relevant learning for consideration and application and may also prompt in the
reader alternative interpretations (Graneheim and, Lundman, 2003).

33. 33
4 Chapter 4 – Research results
4.1 Introduction and research background
This chapter presents the results of research gathered from interview data,
structured around the research objectives and hypotheses, and attempts to
identify common themes and trends. The data collection methods and
respondents’ characteristics were elaborated in Chapter 3.
As explained in Chapter 1, the IRC is an institution going through a change of
legal status and structure, from being a public entity to becoming a fully
member-owned voluntary organisation. The difficulty of moving from systems
and processes typical of public administration to those more typical of an
entrepreneurial, voluntary-based is the key challenge identified from the data.
How this situation has influenced leadership practices identified in the IRC is
elaborated below.
4.2 Findings
To answer the question: “What leadership roles and practices were key for the
change process recently undergone by the Italian Red Cross?”, the research
sought information that would inform the three identified objectives.
4.2.1 Objective 1: leadership practices at the IRC
Leadership in the IRC indicate a progressive change of practice across the
organisation from rather hierarchical although decentralised and
compartmentalised forms of leadership to more structured but democratic,
cohesive and cross-boundary forms.
While informants concentrated on “how leadership looks today”, answers
revealed that prior to the reform there were competing and parallel structures
with their own leaders that often created inefficient decision-making. As
explained further below, the key change resulting from the reform process is not

34. 34
so much a change of legal status, but the restructuring and unification of the
voluntary component. One interviewee stated:
“… the real reform has been the abolition of the voluntary components…
factions with their own barriers... to create one voluntary system” - senior
official.
Prior to the reform, presidents (all volunteers) of local, provincial and regional
committees were somehow disempowered as the IRC had several well-
resourced and influential voluntary components in place at different
geographical levels. Therefore the presidents had in fact little operating power,
compared to the components. This situation was captured in the comment of an
interviewee who had close involvement with the daily management of the
presidency function:
“… before the reform, nobody ever dared to question the power of the individual
voluntary components, which were only nominally under the presidents and
were functioning autonomously, like 6 sub-organisations, with their own
leaders… previous commissioners only commissioned the presidents structure,
hence the governance system, but never questioned the voluntary components
which were de facto the management function …”
This dynamic has now changed, with progressive clarification of roles and
responsibilities leading to a leaner structure. All volunteers report solely to the
president, who is now solely responsible for income generation and efficient use
of resources.
Influence and power has always been in the hands of powerful figures at
different levels of the decentralised organisation. There was never a strong
centralised power at the IRC.
The clear separation between governance and management13
suggested by
interviewees is now in place at central level. Ideally this should be put in place
13
As is well documented, this leads to mixed roles of policy and management, and require them to deal
with challenging accountability dimensions.

35. 35
at other levels where presidents still hold both positions but may not be feasible
due to resource limitations.
4.2.1.1Delegates14
: vehicles of ideas
The IRC's culture change has clearly remade the presidents' leadership role,
with the key leadership practice now centred around “delegating”. As one
interviewee remarked:
“… before (the ongoing cultural transformation) presidents had a network linked
to the voluntary components but in fact, they did nothing. Now they have to
create their own teams and learn how to delegate…”
Delegates of a given strategic area15
are now responsible for achieving the
objectives of their respective area of work. They are nominated by the
volunteers and report to their president. They act to promote ideas coming from
the communities. By delegating, a shared leadership or shared-power approach
is put in place. Presidents provide directions and resources and delegates
manage the work with the volunteers to achieve a given objective, while
maintaining a degree of autonomy.
For one individual, these changes signify a break in the pattern of leadership:
“… the hierarchical leadership has been broken. Now, it is the idea that
dominates, independently from where or whom it comes. It is the idea that is
accompanied by resources… [this] requires a system that allows to redistribute
resources where these are most needed. This is based on a continuous
dialogue between the delegated and the delegating”.
In terms of the ramifications of this break, “… an organisational structure where
delegating is key, requires a system that allows to redistribute resources where
these are most needed. This is based on a continuous dialogue between the
delegated and the delegating...”.
14
Delegates are volunteers elected by volunteers to represent and guide the work of a given strategic
area. They are technical experts. See more here: http://www.cri.it/struttura
15
Local, provincial, regional and national

36. 36
Volunteers do not respond to orders. Decision-making must be participatory and
the satisfaction is in what is achieved, not in the position held. This is why
communication is so important - listening but also providing answers, showing
responsibility and collaboration. The practical, daily consequences of this move
are reflected in the following observation from a volunteer with operational
responsibility within the local committee:
“… in my local committee we are 58 volunteers. I share the strategy but we
work as a team to achieve objectives that we define together. We assess the
needs of the territory and we share and distribute tasks according to interests
and capacities…”
In terms of the personal consequences of this move for appropriate conduct,
“… I cannot act like a boss. I would lose my group’s recognition. They (the
volunteers) can bypass me if they want to… My role is to collect input from the
bottom, find a compromise with directions from the top and take a position…”
Delegates therefore work as part of a team as “leader-coordinators” with the
“doers”, passing on knowledge and experience and influencing from the bottom-
up. Leadership thereby becomes a form of coordination which aims to influence
by generating motivation, innovative thinking and a climate of growth and
achievement.
Delegating is not, however, something that all presidents are familiar with. In
their new roles as managers and leaders (in acts of governance), presidents
now carry a high degree of accountability.
Volunteers’ motivations vary greatly from altruistic to egoistic. Some are
attracted by the corporate image, the visibility, or to the organisational structure.
Managing volunteers and understanding their motivations is crucial to a
successful delegation of power and authority:
“… because we need volunteers we tend to accept everybody. But not all
volunteers have the ethical behaviours, intellectual capacity or professional
experience required by the function they hold. With power and resources in their

37. 37
hands they lose focus. This is why we need volunteers with a true inner
motivation…” – senior volunteer.
The careful assessment of volunteers was identified by another interviewee in
the following terms: “… when a volunteer comes to our committee, he/she
needs to wait at least a year before we move him/her to emergency work. We
test the real motivation…” - senior volunteer.
One may therefore deduce that delegates are those that influence how people
and resources are mobilised, but as one informant put it:
“the influence game is like a bridge: different forces pushing against each other
to reach some kind of balance. In the IRC these forces are at least fourfold: the
presidents with their own dynamics; the administrative power; staff and trade
unions; and the volunteers” - senior manager.
4.2.1.2Credible leadership
Credibility is another key aspect of current leadership practices according to the
interviewees. Credibility is seen as the primordial trait of the national president,
of the volunteer who serves the community, of the organisation as a whole at a
national and international level, of its staff, its services and auxiliary role16
.
Credibility is seen as both individual and organisational:
“… one can influence only if credible. Organisational voice matters if one is
credible…” - volunteer, local committee.
The role of credibility in the pursuit of a renewed role was highlighted by another
interviewee: “we need to rebuild our auxiliary role through institutional
credibility, because this is what gives us power to influence. Integrity,
coherence, capacity and professionalism are the key characteristics of a leading
16
Auxiliary roles can take different forms based on RC laws of each country, and it can be about filling a
gap. See “National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies as auxiliaries to the public authorities in the
humanitarian field”, accessible at
https://fednet.ifrc.org/graphics/Fednet_files/Organisational_Development_11/Legal-base/ns-
auxiliaries-role.pdf

38. 38
institution and political power is receptive to institutional credibility... when you
speak, people listen!”
The desire of the IRC to deliver a “unique” service and not just act as a gap
filler, was noted in the following terms:
“… we question why through the privatization, our specific civil protection role
should not continue to be recognised… we have an impressive operational and
logistics capacity.. the government should value this capacity and treat us
differently…” - senior staff.
But this is not proving to be an easy matter:
“… to define the auxiliary role is not a simple task. There are very few areas
where the IRC can be auxiliary to the government and these areas do not
generate resources for our infrastructure… preferential treatment was
acceptable when it was a public entity, not anymore as a private organisation…”
- senior manager.
Yet, uniqueness is not only the result of a given mandate, but of organisational
credibility, where the organisational purpose is clear to all stakeholders and all
steps taken by the organisation are seen as consistently contributing to
achieving that purpose. In other words, alignment of all behind the purpose is
prized by stakeholders.
On the other hand, to seek to be everything to everybody creates confusion and
reduces credibility. Today, according to the interviewees, there is a new
leadership climate of closeness (with, one presumes, both internal and external
stakeholders), but also a sense of potential abuse or misuse. There is a new
striving for credibility but also reputational risk, tangible targets but no clarity
about the ultimate goal. Many individuals are moving in this direction, but the
move may bring traditional and formalised communication channels into doubt.
At the most senior level:
“… he (the national president) is friends with everybody. This is good and bad…
the use he makes of social networks has abolished institutional barriers, but

39. 39
sometimes a leader needs respectful distance from his followers…” - senior
volunteer, central committee.
More generally, “bypassing institutional communication channels can create
confusion and potentially damage the credibility of the different layers of the
organisation…” - senior volunteer, regional committee.
Such practices, and their emphasis on informality, can breed ambiguity, as
another interviewee noted: “the ultimate goal of the reform is not very clear. We
understand that we needed a more sustainable structure, but the process has
had so many variations in short times that it is difficult to follow…” - volunteer,
provincial committee.
The organisation is still going through what one interviewee described as “a
tunnel” - the early phases of a potentially protracted process of cultural change,
accompanied by a range of often informal and spontaneous new initiatives and
ideas which are building a new shape and identity for the organisation.
To maintain credibility in such a climate is a challenge. It requires from the
formal and informal leaders a strong capacity to generate trust, deliver on
promises made, demonstrate relevance, and practice what their rhetoric
preaches.
4.2.2 Objective 2: specificities of leadership in the IRC context
The internal and external context in which the IRC operates is deemed to be
challenging. At different levels of the organisation, those well positioned to
positively influence the reform process, had to develop what in the literature is
termed, “adaptive behaviour” to control internal and external dynamics, and to
avoid that such dynamics stifle the reform process.
4.2.2.1The external context: technocratic leadership trends
The Italian voluntary system is mature, offering sectoral expertise, especially in
the health field. Italian law protects the volunteer. For instance, when a
volunteer is absent from their paid employment to provide IRC assistance in

40. 40
times of emergency, his/her salary is paid by the government to the employer
who releases the volunteer.
The IRC is part of this system. While part of what has become a rather
saturated domestic operating environment made of some 4000 voluntary
associations, it remains distinct because of its auxiliary/civil protection role. This
positions the IRC as a strategic and policy-making partner, playing a critical role
in times of emergency.
Current leadership could not ultimately disregard the changing operating
environment (including especially the current economic crisis) and has
positioned the internal change process, not only so as to address internal
inefficiencies, but also to meet the increasing external demand for value for
money. There was apparent initial reluctance, though, as one interviewee
observed:
“… all other public administrations have been reformed in the past few years. A
paradox (is) that the IRC did not (reform). There was a strong need to adapt,
and austerity has been a strong push, especially in the context of the civil
protection system…” - senior official, external.
This approach required going back to what is at the core of the established
organisational mission, its voluntary body, reinforcing what gives the IRC a
“competitive advantage”, which, at times, is something as intangible as
reputation, quality and accountability, elements that other broadly comparable
agencies may fail to provide.
Accountability is what the external environment seems to require, and voluntary
organisations are inheriting this demand and risk from the public sector. The
latter increasingly turns to the voluntary sector to take on services they cannot
provide for any longer. As with so many such outsourcing exercises, though, the
limits need to be recognized. As one interviewee remarked:

41. 41
“…we cannot provide services to the government at a cheap price if we are
doing it for them… the real problem is a lack of resources, but the need is out
there and we have to cover it…” - senior staff.
Accountability is primarily seen in its economic rather than social dimension.
This has, the interviewees seemed to argue, generated a culture of
technocracy, where what matters are targets, performance measurements, and
task achievements:
“… today we have all become puppets of a strategy, we have lost the human
element and saw a reduction of intellectual capacity… the consequence is a
weaker leadership” - senior manager.
The interviews show this aspect as one important trend that affects the type of
organisational leadership increasingly seen not only in the IRC but in the entire
voluntary and humanitarian sector , pushing it to be more task-focused than
people-focused, hence leading organisations to a situation of goal
displacement.
4.2.2.2The internal context: representational leadership
Over the years, the IRC has experienced a change in the composition of its
volunteer base, from the elite to a concentration on the working class. This
phenomenon has affected its leadership, as well as its representational capacity
both positively and negatively. Some interviewees were sceptical of the overall
impact of this democratization in the IRC's labour force:
“… broadening the volunteer base and reaching out to different layers of the
society has diluted what used to be the elite…a positive dilution in my view, as
this made the IRC more representative over the years, but at the same time this
process produced a less educated and competent leadership, more focused on
tasks than substance and policy...” - senior manager.
One could question however, whether less education equals less competencies
and capabilities to lead.

42. 42
The changing internal context pushed for reform and attitudinal shift. Current
formal leaders - especially the national ones - have shown a strong capacity to
relate to different dynamics, bring homogeneity, and put together the different
pieces of the puzzle of an organisation with many accountabilities and values
orientations.
Context often pushes individuals to make a choice. This is a choice that starts
as a personal vision and conviction and then moves to others, through a
process of interaction, reflection and support. This implies a testing process for
the committed members of the IRC:
“… I had to expose myself… I visited the committees, talked to people…
mastering relational and social dynamics was key… I had faith in the new idea
and was loyal to it…” - the national president.
Representing the new social dynamics of the organisation in its internal and
external contexts, became a form of leadership which justified a number of
structural changes. These included the reconfiguration of a previously
established volunteer system, an “historic” process, as some informants put it.
Before the reform there was a fragmented representation of the organisation,
because power was compartmentalised as it was in the hands of the six
voluntary components. Those components enjoyed significant largesse, as one
interviewee remarked:
“…these components had autonomous financial resources, autonomous
disciplinary methods, approved their own budgets within their areas of
responsibility and independently from the committee nominally charged with
their actions… they were only accountable to themselves… they could propose
and dispose as they wanted, ignoring the political will of the organisation…” -
senior volunteer.
There was a need to create a unified volunteer system, capable of
understanding and representing the needs coming from the frontline in a
coherent manner.

43. 43
This context required strong leadership from above who could also represent
the voice of the volunteers, as a number of constitutional changes were
required and a clear vision and positioning was needed.
This entailed moving from a status of public entity to the status of a voluntary
association which also meant having to deal with civil servant labour contracts.
Trade unions challenged and at times obstructed the reform, as these
observations indicate:
“… trade unions have been against the privatization… not all staff understand
the strategies, policies and dynamics… the IRC had become a bureaucratic
elephant…”
“… trade unions have been influencing and at times nurturing the internal
conflict. Not only that, but the normative system in Italy did not facilitate the task
either…”
Neither of these views are from a trade union perspective, but indicate the
potential significance of their interventions in the IRC's change process.
Leadership had to show a capacity to represent both staff and volunteers fairly,
to juggle with the motivations of one camp and the other, to show empathy but
also to provide clear direction, requiring drastic measures at times. But to attain
“representation”, empowerment was needed.
4.2.2.3President-volunteers: a form of empowered leadership
Most of the interviewees were volunteers. This applied to all presidents, from
the national to the local level. Presidents are elected because they represent
the needs of the volunteers. They are therefore by definition empowered and
given the legitimacy and authority to act on behalf of the organisation.
The reform process has shaped a “new” role that presidents are now expected
to play. There is some sense of abandonment, because of lack of appropriate
systems and capacities to support a role that comes with increased
accountability. There is recognition among interviewees of the personal
exposure and vulnerability that this change poses:

44. 44
“… before (the reform) they (the presidents) were supported by civil servants for
administrative matters, not anymore… and there are no systems in place to act
like a private (firm), to ensure control and accountability…” - senior official.
“… in some locations, moving from public to private opens the door to criminal
infiltrations. Why would a president who is a volunteer, take that personal risk?”
- senior staff.
Presidents are primarily coordinators and not necessarily financial
administrators. Clarity of roles and responsibilities is crucial to ensuring a
functioning system, not necessarily more hierarchy.
Such clarity can come from a common direction and agreed frameworks, which
allow supervision and control to happen among peers and not in a hierarchical
way. Some interviewees even suggested that the president could be replaced
by an executive body, more representative of the diverse realities, in an
environment of shared accountability.
At present, the system is largely monocratic. This is presented as a temporary
measure to allow the reform process to proceed and achieve its goal, namely
full privatization of the organisation. However, monocratic leadership has
limitations:
“… presidents carry all things on their shoulders. They have legal
responsibilities and no boards to support them…this is not appropriate for a
complex organisation like the IRC…” - senior volunteer.
There remains still some ambiguity of roles as presidents represent both
governance and management in their own committees. The exception is at
national level, where the two roles are clearly distinct: there is one National
President and one Director General. This too is deemed both unsustainable and
inadequate:
“… the responsibility is huge. We need a different system, where governance
and management are clearly separated… maybe we should introduce the role

45. 45
of administrator, partly remunerated, like in the American Red Cross…we need
to find the right model…” - volunteer, provincial committee.
Despite the challenges here identified, there is a general sense of trust in the
new generation of leaders:
“… I have faith in the new generation of presidents, even if they don’t have the
managerial capacity that we may wish for… we could have provided better
training, but did not have time nor the instruments to do it…” - senior manager.
Capacities need to be built at both organisational and individual level.
Structured leadership is seen as appropriate to facilitate decision-making. This
requires sharing common frameworks and methodologies, achieving coherence
in project management, needs assessment, and resource management.
Ultimately, in the judgment of one interviewee, the IRC could effectively run
itself without titular leadership :
“… we can work without a formal leader. The presidents and delegates
hierarchy is not as formal as it looks like. We have created a structure to
distribute roles and responsibilities…the leader does not have a supervision
function… he could be replaced by an executive body…” - volunteer, local
committee.
There is consensus on the fact that the new structure gradually coming into
place allows the IRC to achieve more with less:
“… today I have less money but I do more activities. Before, costs were more of
a structural nature… (this is) a sign that we are making savings” - volunteer,
local committee.
4.2.3 Objective 3: patterns of leadership during the reform period
There was general consensus among interviewees that the reform was an
unavoidable necessity, and that the IRC was going through an identity crisis,
exacerbated by a financial one. While the need for financial accountability

46. 46
triggered initial government interference, the call for independence and
ownership came from the volunteers.
The IRC had become, according to one reading, a victim of its own internal
power dynamics, conflicting demands and territorial needs.
Historical organisational reasons underlined the identity crisis but sustainability
issues triggered the change process. In order to reach relevance and
recognition, both domestically and internationally, trade-offs were required from
each part of the organisation. This was undoubtedly a painful process, not
without obstacles and tensions for the new leadership appointed in 2012:
“… he (the commissioner and then president) had to deal with a list of critical
issues of 300 pages, in bullet points... IRC had not approved its budget since
2003 and was working like a cashier, spending only what was available in the
bank account…” -senior manager.
4.2.3.1Transparent leadership: the importance of communication
The importance of communication was at the heart of the debate in the IRC,
especially during these times of organisational turmoil. Interviewees reported
that pain is easier to handle if the message and the goal are clear, because
confidence in the underlying intent and the rightness of change remains.
Conversely, false statements and half-truths, intentional or unintentional, were
seen as creating confusion and tension.
Effective leaders can (the interviewees argued) bring unity where there is
fragmentation, or integration where there are silo-approaches. They do this by
showing empathy, understanding, transparency and commitment, driving an
attitudinal shift that helps the organisation to emerge from potential chaos and
find new common ways of working.
Transparent leaders know the organisation from within and understand the
perspective of those that keep the organisation alive. They make hard choices,
communicate them clearly and are ready to stand by them - even at the cost of
personal reputational damage. Remarking on the actions of one leader, an

47. 47
interviewee highlighted the ethical courage and persistence required to give this
practical effect:
“…he was asked to do the dirty job. It was not easy to gain support but he did…
he’s a great model, not afraid of losing face…” - senior staff.
Another aspect raised by interviewees was openness, through the use of direct
communication channels such as social networks. While this approach was
generally positively received by volunteers who now have direct access to the
leaders of the organisation, this also meant dealing with reality distortion and
reputational risk - and the ability to be receptive to views and perspectives that
would be under scrutiny by the organisation is deemed of paramount
importance:
“… the use of social networks favours communication with the base, but we
need to listen even more and through other channels” - senior volunteer,
regional committee.
It is through communication that attitudes and behaviours can change. Leaders
who consistently and coherently communicate the same message can ease
fear, which is the opponent of change, and maintain a climate where
productivity continues and motivation remains.
4.2.3.2Emergency leadership patterns
An emergency is commonly defined as an unforeseen combination of
circumstances or the resulting state that calls for immediate action. In this
sense, a situation of organisational turmoil can be associated with an
emergency situation or a crisis.
It is not easy to determine whether the IRC has passed the peak of the crisis or
is still in the middle of it. What is clear, however, is that a visible form of
emergency leadership was needed and might be used to drive the reform
process.
Alternatively and in the words of an interviewee: “change happened because he
was one man in command. No boards. And this was necessary because if you

48. 48
have boards during periods of crisis, all decisions are contested and you go
nowhere” - senior manager.
In the IRC case, a monocratic system appeared to work better in these times of
change, based on informal forms of consultation and participation, where
invisible influencers can either support or boycott the leader’s vision.
Conflict of interest was at times driven by individual perspectives but also by
honest concerns for the organisation and its personnel:
“…if public our cost is higher, if private we have to become competitive, earn
less. Some salaries may be reduced up to 40%, which is a huge loss for a
family budget…” - senior official.
Another interviewee focused on the IRC's long term organizational capacity:
“… it is hard to imagine how the IRC will sustain its current operational capacity,
an emergency system made of 20,000 people ready to be deployed at any time.
We are autonomous in times of emergency, but tomorrow?...” - senior official.
Privatization was seen by many as the only solution to achieve competitiveness:
“… If IRC is losing ground it is because our labour cost is too high and
unsustainable… we have accumulated rights and benefits typical of a public
administration and non-competitive in the voluntary sector…” - senior manager.
Conversely, another large fraction of the interviewees saw in this process a
price too high to pay for specific individuals. Arguments provided in favour of the
privatization, among which being the path to achieving competitiveness, did not
echo those who only saw the loss of a unique and protected mandate:
“…it will be difficult to justify the use of emergency funding to maintain the
infrastructure, instead of using it to provide relief to the affected population. How
can a private guarantee and maintain such an infrastructure in times of no
use?...” - senior official.

49. 49
An additional characteristic of situations of crisis is that they tend to prompt a
sense of denial in those who are affected, often until it is too late to react. In
organisational terms, emergency leaders are therefore leaders who can read
these critical signs and convince people that change means survival and status
quo means collapse.
The reform has undoubtedly shaken existing power relations. Reconstruction
and recovery are long processes, but usually efforts go towards rebuilding in a
more sustainable way. The current structure appears leaner, offering the
delegates the power and capacity to exert upward influence. Are these roles
substantially different than those undertaken by the previous leaders of
voluntary components? Contradicting answers were given to this question, but
all recognised the effort to work in a more integrated and holistic manner.
Many interviewees felt that a proper assessment of the capacity in place to
assume a private role at local and provincial level was not available. As
mentioned above, presidents are not all equipped in terms of systems,
capacities, or skills to guarantee transparency and accountability. An
interviewee noted that:
“… volunteers pushed for this reform… there was a desire to free themselves
from administrative and bureaucratic constrains… book-keeping, accounting…
now presidents are responsible for these aspects as well…is this really what
they wanted?...” - senior staff.
Democratic leadership will eventually need to be reintroduced when a period of
stability is reached. Through the reform, though, the general view is that
decision-making has to remain manageable even if this means adopting
coercive methods, at times.
4.2.3.3Transformational leadership patterns
Many of the people interviewed concurred that these are times of change
because there is activity, empowerment, experimenting, networking, maybe
even chaos, but not paralysis. Change is visible, perhaps not fully evident yet in
terms of deep-set attitudes, but at least in practice, because things are moving.

50. 50
The Researcher noted through observation that change was more visible from
outside than within the IRC. One example is how relationships have profoundly
improved between the IRC and the civil protection system:
“…before the reform the IRC was seen as playing in isolation, using its
independence as an excuse to stay out of the coordination system. This was a
handicap. During the response to the earthquake in Umbria, the IRC started to
get more involved in multi-player strategic decisions, showing its capacity to
play a critical role while maintaining its autonomy but benefiting from synergies
with other bodies…” - senior official, external.
Leaders have played a key role in repositioning the IRC as a credible player:
“…the IRC identity is changing… not just the ambulance service in people's
minds, but far more than that…”
Reputation is growing, according to one interviewee:
“… IRC is not only seen as a group of volunteers “doing stuff” but as an
organised institution where volunteers are the reflection of a shared mission, an
organisation that is capable of building a relationship of trust with its citizens… it
was not always like that for the IRC…” - senior official, external.
The key is in its evolving auxiliary role. The auxiliary role is justified when IRC
actions are of help to the government in specific cases (e.g. services to arriving
migrants). When delivering social services to the community the IRC is in
competition with other players and market forces are in place.
The solution for IRC would be to find its competition-free space, because “new”
activities are offered or simply because there is “no interest” in those
environments from other operators. Interviewees felt this should mean ceasing
to do certain things with which the IRC has historically been associated, and
embarking on new things instead, a potentially painful process of adjustment,
but one that would lead to more appropriate programmes.

51. 51
“… we need to stop running ambulance services and get our hands dirty, go
where there is suffering. Needs are changing… but the challenge is consensus,
external image, things we may lose if we start caring for those on the margins of
society…” - senior manager.
“…we need to move away from a provincial and puritan approach and start
looking at reality and address it with appropriate programmes, with no sense of
shame…” - volunteer, provincial committee.
This requires a strategic choice, to answer the question (as put by one
volunteer) “where is the Red Cross needed most today?”
There is also space for an increased advocacy role to guarantee quality,
certification and minimum standards. The IRC is traditionally seen as a public
entity because for years it has supplemented the health system, delivering
community services. Many felt that this public perception of delivering quality
services should not be lost in the privatization process.
The challenge, post privatisation, will be to remain needs-driven and not money-
driven, finding the balance between income-generating activities and
humanitarian services. This will, interviewees suggest, be a precarious balance
to strike:
“…not all understand what going private means. Some committees are now run
like private businesses where only the economic dimension matters…” -
volunteer, local committee.
The dialogue with the volunteers who know the reality on the ground has to be
prioritized to maintain the balance that this move jeopardises.
Internally, change is reflected in a more structured organisation, where there is
increasing clarity of roles and responsibilities and a reinforced, shared mission
and stronger identity. The unification of the voluntary spirit has constituted the
real victory.

52. 52
Transformation is on-going. Volunteers must match a new profile where values
and skills come together, where motivation is accompanied by a sense of
responsibility and accountability. Volunteers are seen as the transformational
leaders of the organisation, those who can influence policy and practice and
take the organisation in a more sustainable direction. It is not the legal status of
the organisation that changes attitudes and working practices but a learning by
doing process, made of joint-approaches aligned to common goals. As already
mentioned, delegates are the promoters of change, the best positioned to play a
catalytic role.
A number of informants believe that local committees are far more empowered
and autonomous than some may think. It is more of an issue for the central
committee which needs to change strategy to remain relevant:
“… I don’t see abandonment in this new form of empowerment. If we close the
central committee today, most likely the local committee of let’s say
Pordenone17
will notice it only after 6 months… what is our added value as a
central committee? Many of these committees already walk on their own…
Does the central committee want to play a coordinating role?...” - senior
manager.
A confederation of committees versus a central power structure is the risk, with
a subsequent loss of common identity.
Internally, privatization meant dealing with structural and constitutional
challenges. These challenges mainly involved a change in labour contract
conditions for IRC civil servants, and the dilemma of dealing with auxiliary
bodies of a military nature which by Italian law cannot be part of a private
structure.
In this context, leaders at the top of the organisation decided to focus on what
are termed the core activities and competences of the IRC, adopting a long-
term approach which would look at gradually replacing old structures and
reinforcing the most relevant ones.
17
A city in the North of Italy

53. 53
Many interviewees believe that full privatization (from local to central
committees18
) should be the aim and not something in between. This is a
question of identity, image, perception and reputation, all aspects that have an
impact on the organisation and its service delivery.
The new leadership has demonstrated vision and gained trust, in part because
it introduced clarity of roles and responsibility between governance and
management at central IRC level. This has resulted in a mutual inter-
dependence between governance and the administrative/management function,
where one informs and reports to the other and vice versa. There is a mutual
form of accountability. This however has still to cascade down to regional,
provincial and local committees.
Many interviewees confirmed that the leadership style of the current national
president was key in driving the reform. He used order and structure, while
involving people and building consensus because his approach was honest and
loyal:
“…he had the right tools and instruments to succeed. He made it happen
because he took the right decisions, was inclusive but firm and exposed
himself.” - senior manager.
Another view was: “…he was personally involved, built general consensus.
People could see his loyalty to the organisation…[although many people lost
their jobs…people knew he was doing it for the good of the organisation” -
senior volunteer, regional committee.
The national president is seen as a transformational leader who has succeeded
in guiding the organisation to safe ground. There are still critical aspects to
confront but already, there is less institutional vulnerability:
“… the process has just started but we see more serenity. Anyway, the IRC has
never depended so strongly on its formal leadership. The IRC is strong at its
base, it has coverage and proximity…” - senior volunteer, regional committee.
18
At the writing of this report, only local and provincial committees are under a private legal status

54. 54
But some still have doubts:
“… the IRC is not ready to walk by itself… we need to be more present… a
clear mandate…” - senior staff.
Reinforcing this, “if he leaves, we are not ready to replace him with a person of
the same calibre… he has shown energy, firmness, courage… he has openly
condemned unethical behaviours… we need to transfer these characteristics to
other people somehow…” - senior volunteer, central committee.
To conclude, it is probably too early to say if the reform is really delivering its
promises, such as attracting more young volunteers, reaching competitiveness,
and allowing the organisation to deliver services in a sustainable way. However
both structural and human aspects seem to indicate that the chosen path is one
which can be defended.
4.3 Discussion
Examining the responses from all of the interviewees, several leadership
models could be detected which will be compared with those explored in the
Literature review in the concluding chapter. Meanwhile, the findings point to the
following observations.
Informants have commonly presented leadership as a process of personal
development - both their own and others'. This is a process that rebuts the idea
of “one model fits all” but rather values the responses that people find “within
themselves”. The individual capacity to overcome hard times and build one’s
own resilience was often presented as the basic ingredient for effective
leadership.
Roles must be interpreted, and as such they are both situational and open to
controversy. It is authenticity and a capacity to honestly and openly relate to
other human beings and interact with people that allow effective leaders to find
the balance between playing a role and being themselves, hence finding the