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1. Department of Human Biology
Bachelor of Medical Sciences (Physiology) 2022
Intro to Human Physiology - BMP27M1 & BMP22M1
COORDINATORS:
1. Miss B.P. LETSWALO: bletswalo@wsu.ac.za
Office: L359 3rd
floor Main Campus
2. Prof C. R. RUSIKE: Ext. 2507 (consewa@hotmail.com/crusike@wsu.ac.za)
Office: 3rd
floor Main Campus

2. i
Table of Contents
1. COURSE STRUCTURE, PHILOSOPHY, RULES & REGULATIONS ......................................................... 1
2. ATTENDANCE .............................................................................................................................. 1
3. CLASS CONDUCT ......................................................................................................................... 1
4. ACADEMIC DISHONESTY:............................................................................................................. 1
5. TEACHING METHODS................................................................................................................... 1
6. GRADING & ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................ 2
7. ADVANCING TO 3RD
YEAR............................................................................................................. 2
8. TEXT BOOKS ............................................................................................................................... 2
9. COURSE OUTLINE:....................................................................................................................... 4
10. TIMETABLE 2022...................................................................................................................... 9

3. 1
1. COURSE STRUCTURE, PHILOSOPHY, RULES & REGULATIONS
Organisms depend upon homeostasis to maintain their existence. Since cells are the fundamental
structural/functional units of life, a basic knowledge of cell physiology is essential for understanding how
organisms maintain homeostasis. Introduction to Human Physiology is a concepts-based lecture course
designed to introduce you to the principles of integrated cellular function. This is a 1st
semester course with
final examination in May/June. You will be notified of the exact date in due course. The concepts learnt in
the introductory Physiology course are then applied in Systems Physiology. Physiological systems covered in
2nd
year BMed are Gastrointestinal, Endocrine, Reproductive (male and female) and Renal Physiology.
2. ATTENDANCE
Lecture, tutorial, seminar and laboratory attendance is COMPULSORY. A register is taken for every lecture
and practical. Class reps should ensure a register is taken. An attendance of less than 85% excludes you
from writing the final examination.
3. CLASS CONDUCT
You are all adults in training to be professionals. It is expected that all class members will exhibit respectful
and courteous behavior in all interactions with other students and with staff. We expect punctuality, turning
off cell phones during lectures and practical sessions, avoiding unkind, tactless, or rude comments to others,
refraining from threatening behavior or mocking others in class.
4. ACADEMIC DISHONESTY:
University policies regarding academic dishonesty, as described in the student handbook (University General
Prospectus), will be strictly enforced. Any acts of dishonesty will result in failure of assignments involved,
failure of the course, and/or further disciplinary action that may involve exclusion from the course. Academic
dishonesty in any form will not be tolerated, including any form of plagiarism. If a student is caught cheating
in a test or exam, the student will automatically be disqualified for that particular paper.
5. TEACHING METHODS
This is left to the discretion of the responsible lecturer. A combination of formal lectures, student
presentations and discussion, case/problem based sessions, seminars, laboratory practical and homework
assignments are methods commonly used. We strive not to spoon-feed students – we expect you to put in
the intellectual effort to learn the material. Our biggest expectation from our students is that they do their
best and they excel. We hope to develop a lifelong learning culture through self-directed learning.

4. 2
6. GRADING & ASSESSMENT
Continuous assessment Year mark (DP) (attendance, quizzes, assignments, laboratory reports, tests)
contributes 60% to the final course mark (80% from tests, 20% from other marks). Test dates are indicated
on the timetable. Attendance of less than 85% to lectures, seminars and practical sessions excludes candidate
from the exam. A semester mark < 40% results in exclusion from writing the final examination (no DP) –
the student automatically repeats the course/the year. Final examination mark contributes 40% to the final
course mark.
Examination: An examination mark < 45% results in failure of the module (subminimum)
Final module mark: Continuous assessment contribute 60% and examination mark contribute 40% to the
final module mark. 50 % is the pass mark. 45-49% a student is eligible for a supplementary examination. A
mark <45 % is a fail – the student will repeat the module.
7. ADVANCING TO 3RD
YEAR
It is mandatory to pass ALL modules at Level 2 in order to advance to 3rd
year. Failing one 2nd
year module
precludes the student from advancing to 3rd
year until they pass that module. Students repeat only the
modules that they failed. If excluded, you may reapply to reenter the program after 3 years (WSU general
rule G7.5).
8. TEXT BOOKS
Set Textbook:
1. Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems by Lauralee Sherwood.
Core Textbooks (Physiology):
2. Silverthorn DU: Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, Prentice-Hall.
3. Physiology by Linda S. Costanzo
Reference texts
1. Physiology by Berne and Levy (detailed)
2. Textbook of Medical Physiology by Guyton (detailed)
3. Review of Medical Physiology by Ganong (summarized)
For courses offered in other departments, liaise with the responsible course coordinator/lecturer for
assistance – through Class Representatives.

5. 3
Advice to students – University semesters are short and it is easy for students to fall behind. It is therefore
important to be organized, work hard and consistently from the outset and to keep up. If you have questions
or problems, seek the advice of the faculty members in that particular module as early in the semester as
possible. There is very little the Lecturers can do for the student towards the end of the semester. Hard
work and diligence pay off, but procrastination leads to serious academic difficulty.

6. 4
9. COURSE OUTLINE:
A. Functional Morphology of the cell
Students are expected to possess basic knowledge of the cell from first year. This part of the
course is mostly revision. In depth knowledge will be covered:
1. Cell membrane: Chemical composition, structure and function. Fluid mosaic model
2. Nuclear envelope: structure and function (association with Golgi apparatus)
3. Organelles: structure and function of:
a. Mitochondria
b. ribosomes
c. Endoplasmic reticulum
d. Golgi apparatus
e. Lysosomes; peroxisomes; secretory granules
4. Cytoskeleton
a. Microtubules
b. Intermediate filaments
c. Microfilaments
d. Molecular motor proteins (dynein and kinesin)
5. Centrosome, cilia and flagella
6. Cell adhesion molecules (integrins, cadherins, selectins)
7. Intercellular junctions
a. Tight junction (zonula occludens)
b. Desmosome and hemi-desmosome
c. Gap junctions
8. Protein synthesis (for export and intracellular use)
a. Transcription (DNA structure and function)
b. Translation
c. Post translational modification
B. Cellular activities
1. Homeostasis: The Foundation of Physiology
a. Introduction to Human Physiology
b. Levels of Organization in the Body (atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, systems,
organism)
c. Homeostasis - definition
d. Homeostatic Control Systems
i. Positive and negative feedback loop

7. 5
ii. Components of the feedback loop and their functions (variable, detector or sensor,
comparator or controller, Set point, effector)
2. Body fluid compartments
a. The compartments total body water distributed in ECF (ISF +plasma), ICF and transcellular
b. Normal water distribution – expected fractional distribution of water in compartments
c. Normal composition of body fluids (proteins, main cations and anions)
d. Body fluid disturbances (iso, hypo, hyper- osmotic dehydration and overhydration) Causes of
disturbances and effect on ECF and ICF in terms of volume and osmolarity
3. Cellular transport
a. Osmosis (relate to body fluids) – this si an example of facilitated diffusion of water
b. Passive transport – definition of diffusion
i. simple diffusion – factors affecting rate as given by Fick’s law. Hydrophobic
substances in simple diffusion.
c. facilitated diffusion (specific saturable – show graph)
 channels (leak and gated channels with specific examples of ions); carrier proteins (e.g.
glucose, amino acids)
d. Active transport – need for energy
 primary active transport (direct utilization of ATP) e.g. Na+
K+
ATPAse, Ca2+
ATPase,
H+
/K+
ATPase, H+
ATPase
 Detailed step by step mechanism of activity by Na+
K+
ATPAse
 Functions of the Na+
K+
ATPAse pump including in secondary active transport
 secondary active transport (energy from gradient of another ion) use of carrier proteins
(define uniport, antiport, symport) e.g. Na+
/Ca2+
(antiport); Na/glucose (symport);
Na+
/H+
(antiport); Na+
amino acids (symport)
 Clinical applications – salt sugar solution of secondary active transport
 Vesicular transport – exocytosis, endocytosis, pinocytosis
4. Cell signaling
a. Contact signaling – gap junctions
b. Chemical signaling
i. Chemical signaling molecules in Physiology (classification based on charge moleculalr
structure; common examples)
ii. Hydrophilic signaling chemicals – surface membrane receptors (why?)
 Ionotropic (ligand gated signaling e.g. acetylcholine on nicotinic receptor)

8. 6
 Metabotropic - G-protein linked transduction – serpentine receptor, G protein
structure, enzyme, substrate and 2nd
messenger(s)
 Types of G proteins (Gs, Gi, Gq, Gt)
a. cAMP pathway (protein kinase A including effect on gene expression
through CREB)
b. DAG, IP3 Ca2+
pathway
c. cGMP pathway in vision
 Enzyme linked – e.g. protein kinase linked; Serine/Threonine kinase linked.
Example of insulin and some growth factors.
iii. Hydrophobic chemicals – intracellular receptors
 Steroids e.g. aldosterone, cortisol, testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone
lipids derived from cholesterol in SER
 Thyroid hormones - basal metabolic rate
 Lipid soluble Vitamins - vitamins A, D, E, K
 Also retinoic acid, nitric oxide.
Transduction pathway of hydrophobic signaling molecules is via intracellular
receptors resulting in gene expression
c. Neural signaling:
i. Structure of the neuron
ii. Equilibrium (or reversal) potential of ions – what is it? Nernst equation
iii. resting membrane potential – how is it generated? Ion primarily involved. How is it
maintained?
iv. graded potential – What is it?
v. action potential – voltage gated Na+
and K+
gates and their role in the action
potential.
vi. Labelled graph representation – be able to explain the phases of the graph based on
physiological activity and status of the voltage gated Na+
gate
vii. Refractory periods – be able to indicate these on the action potential graph. Relate
refractory periods to status of the voltage gated Na+
gate
viii. Action potential propagation
ix. Application – e.g. local anaesthetic lignocaine
5. Muscle physiology (example of excitable tissues)
a. Types of muscle (striated vs unstriated) structural distinguishing features of smooth, skeletal
and cardiac.
b. Mechanisms of excitation contraction coupling for each of the three muscle type

9. 7
c. The synapse
d. The neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle as an example of a synapse
e. Common diseases of muscle
Specific Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this unit and with review, the student will be able to
1. Define homeostasis, describe the general mechanisms by which it is maintained, and explain its
importance to survival with at least one example.
2. Describe the role of ribosomes, both free and fixed, in protein synthesis.
3. Describe the structure and function of an array of eukaryotic cellular components, including the
cytoskeleton.
4. Describe the properties of water as the physiological solvent, how body fluids are distributed within
compartments
5. Describe how the fluid composition differs between compartments
6. Describe the transport mechanisms that move water and other materials from one compartment to
another (see 10).
7. Describe the general functions of each organ system.
8. Describe the structure and function of biological membranes and intercellular junctions.
9. Compare and contrast the mechanisms for the movement of materials across cell membranes in terms
of their physical and chemical properties (active and passive transport).
10. Compare and contrast the steps in signal transduction for non-steroidal and steroidal chemical
messengers.
11. Discuss the role of second-messenger systems in signal transduction.
12. Differentiate between chemically-gated, mechanically-gated, and voltage-gated ion channels.
13. Explain the characteristics of a polarized, depolarized and repolarized membrane. How are these
changes in the transmembrane electrical potential accomplished?
14. Describe how the transmembrane electrical potential is utilized by cells.
15. Differentiate between a graded potential and an the all-or-none action potential.
16. Describe the events that lead to the conduction of a unidirectional action potential.
17. Define the terms neurotransmitter and threshold. Discuss examples of excitatory and inhibitory
neurotransmitters.
18. Describe the sequence of events that occur at a chemical synapse
19. Describe the events which stop stimulation of the post-synaptic membrane.
20. Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials.
21. Describe the anatomical and functional differences between myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibres;
and compare conduction of an impulse along these fibres.

10. 8
22. Explain how temperature, fibre diameter, and the presence of myelination affect speed of conduction
along a nerve fibre.
23. Compare and contrast the structure and function of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues.
24. Describe events at the neuromuscular junction
25. Describe the sequence of chemical and physical events that produce skeletal muscle contraction and
relaxation.
26. Describe the structure and function of the neuromuscular junction for skeletal muscles.
27. Describe the cause of common muscle diseases and relate to effects on function

11. 9
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY BMP27M1 (32 CREDITS)
10.TIMETABLE 2022
Venue – Online
DAY DATE Time Lecturer TOPIC
Monday 31-01-22 Online Registrations
Tuesday 01-02-22 Online Registrations
Wednesday 02-02-22 Online Registrations
Thursday 03-02-22 Online Registrations
Friday 04-02-22 Online Registrations
Week 1
Monday 07/02/22 1200-1300 Letswalo Introduction: Rules and Regulations
Tuesday 08/02/22 0800-1000 Letswalo Introduction to Human Physiology. Homeostasis
Wednesday 09/02/22 1100-1300 Letswalo Overview of the Cell. Basics of cell metabolism
Thursday 10/02/22 1400-1600 Letswalo Cell membrane structure and function I
Week 2
Monday 14/02/22 1200-1300 Letswalo Cell membrane structure and function II
Tuesday 15/02/22 0800-1000 Letswalo Cellular organelles and their function I
Wednesday 16/02/22 1100-1300 Letswalo Cellular organelles and their function II
Thursday 17/02/22 1400-1600 Mokwena Intercellular cell junctions and cytoskeleton (also
cilia and flagella)
Week 3
Monday 21/02/22 1200-1300 Mokwena Cell cycle = Phases of the cycle and events (G0,
G1, G2, S, M and check points)
Tuesday 22/02/22 0800-1000 Mokwena Cell cycle – Mitosis
Wednesday 23/02/22 1100-1300 Mokwena Meiosis
Thursday 24/02/22 1400-1600 Mokwena Protein synthesis (in-house and export proteins) I
Week 4
Monday 28/02/22 1200-1300 Mokwena Protein synthesis (in-house and export proteins) I
Tuesday 01/03/22 0800-1000 Mokwena Protein synthesis (in-house and export proteins)
II
Wednesday 02/03/22 1100-1300 Letswalo/Mok
wena
Revision/SDL (preparation for Test 1)
Thursday 04/03/22 1400-1600 Letswalo &
Mokwena
Revision/SDL (preparation for Test 1)
Week 5
Monday 07/03/22 1200-1300 Rusike Body fluid Compartments – water distribution
Tuesday 08/03/22 0800-1000 Rusike Body fluid compartment disturbances
Wednesday 09/03/22 1100-1300 Mokwena Cellular transport: Intro & passive transport
Thursday 10/03/22 Letswalo &
Mokwena
TEST 1 – (up to protein synthesis)
Week 6
Monday 14/03/22 1200-1300 Mokwena Cellular transport - Active transport

12. 10
Tuesday 15/03/22 0800-1000 Mokwena Cellular transport Active transport (cont)
Specific examples (GIT enterocytes and renal
cell)
Wednesday 16/03/22 1100-1300 Rusike Cell chemical signaling: Overview, chemical
signals (hydrophilic and hydrophobic) and
receptors
Thursday 17/03/22 1400-1600 Rusike Chemical signaling – ionotropic
Week 7
Monday 21/03/22 1200-1300 Rusike Chemical signaling – metabotropic signaling
Tuesday 22/03/22 0800-1000 Rusike Chemical signaling – hydrophobic signaling
Wednesday 23/03/22 1100-1300 Rusike Chemical signaling – review problems
Thursday 24/03/22 1400-1600 Rusike Neural signaling – Equilibrium potential
Week 8
Monday 28/03/22 1200-1300 Rusike Resting membrane potential (relevant equations)
The action potential.
Tuesday 29/03/22 0800-1000 Rusike Neural signaling– Action Potential propagation.
Wednesday 30/03/22 1100-1300 Rusike The general synapse – neurotransmitters &
electrical to chemical back to electrical signaling
Thursday 31/03/22 1400-1600 Letswalo Introducing Muscle Physiology and distinguishing
feature (Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth muscle) –
END OF TERM 1
Weak 9
Monday 11/04/22 1200-1300 Letswalo Skeletal muscle - structure and contraction
mechanism. I
Tuesday 12/04/22 0800-1000 Letswalo Skeletal muscle - structure and contraction
mechanism. II
Wednesday 13/04/22 1100-1300 Letswalo The neuromuscular junction – including drugs
affecting the junction (blockers and stimulants)
Thursday 14/04/22 Rusike Test 2 (from fluid compartments to
chemical signaling)
Week 10
Monday 18/04/22 1200-1300 PUBLIC HOLIDAY
Tuesday 19/04/22 0800-1000 Letswalo Smooth muscle – structure and contraction
mechanism (MLCK; MLCP).
Wednesday 20/04/22 1100-1300 Letswalo Cardiac muscle - structure and contraction
mechanism
Thursday 21/04/22 1400-1530 Letswalo Ca2+
source for contraction in the 3 muscle types.
Common muscle diseases (genetic and acquired).
Week 11
Monday 25/04/22 1200-1300 Letswalo Revision – Muscle Physiology
Tuesday 26/04/22 0800-1000 SDL
Wednesday 27/04/22 1100-1300 SDL
Thursday 28/04/22 Letswalo &
Rusike
Test 3 – (neural signaling & muscle
physiology)
Week 12 – Second semester lessons
Monday 02/05/22 1200-1300 Ndebia Overview and functional anatomy of the GIT
system.

13. 11
Tuesday 03/05/22 0800-1000 Ndebia GIT Neural innervation. Autonomic and Enteric
nervous system I
Wednesday 04/05/22 1100-1230 Ndebia GIT Neural innervation. Autonomic and Enteric
nervous system II
Thursday 05/05/22 1400-1700 Ndebia Hormones of the GIT I
Week 13
Monday 09/05/22 1200-1300 Ndebia Hormones of the GIT II
Tuesday 10/05/22 0800-1000 Ndebia GIT secretions I - Salivary and gastric secretions
and their regulation.
Wednesday 11/05/22 1100-1300 Ndebia GIT secretions II - Pancreatic and biliary secretions
and their regulation.
Thursday 12/05/22 1400-1700 SDL
Week 14
Monday 16/05/22 1200-1300 Revision
Tuesday 17/05/22 0800-1000 Revision
Wednesday 18/05/22 1100-1300 Revision
Thursday 19/05/22 1400-1700 Revision
1st
SEMESTER STUDY & EXAMS 23/05 TO 10/06
1st
SEMESTER UNIVERSITY VACATION 24/06 TO 10/07/2022
NB: Fridays are open for extra tests and practical when available.