MScBIT Dissertation-SGarske DRAFT 01-01-05 v7.99.43 (1) (1)

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3-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS REVOLUTION
AN ANALYSIS OF
3-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS TECHNOLOGY THEORY
AND IT’S SYNERGISTIC BUSINESS INTERACTION
by
Steven Garske
A dissertation submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Business
Information Technology (2004/2005)
November, 2005
Kingston Business School
Kingston University

FACULTY OF BUSINESS
MSc
Business Information Technology
Dissertation 2004/5
Name: Steve Garske

Abstract
The virtual world of 3D graphics is an exciting place to be. It has dramatically changed the
way we are entertained, receive medical care, and protect our country. This dissertation will
examine the technical aspects of 3D graphics and the business implications related to its
growth and proliferation.
An analysis of the current increases in usage, the differentials between the theoretical
application in the industries, the current technology standards initiatives, the comparative
utilisation gradients, and the future global impact of this technology will be examined.
Particular attention will be paid to the medical, defence, and entertainment industries. Each
industry is at a different stage with respect to the utilisation of this technology.
The research will relinquish conclusions and derived recommendations which can be utilised
by the focus industries and those involved in 3D graphics proliferation worldwide. The
conclusions reached include evidence that the software is growing rapidly, the existence of
multiple theoretical differences in the application, the fact that X3D should be the selected
international standard format and that the future of the technology is moving quickly. These
conclusions reveal clear recommendations for the industry sponsors which will further advance
this field.
The author has been invited to investigate this topic by a Chief Surgeon and Vice President of
Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, a UNIX administrator of the worlds third largest defence
contractor, a Producer and Director of A. Swashbuckler Productions, an Account Executive for
Raytheon Corporation, a former technical employee of Apple Computer Corporation, and a
technical employee for DreamWorks Ltd.

Preface
Conventions used within this document
italicised text
Is used to refer to defined terms listed in the Glossary of Terms.
(See page/Section xxx)
Cross-references are used throughout this text, and will be enclosed in brackets.
(External references, 2000)
Use the format – Name (year), or (Name, year)
For Interview references – (Name, Date)
Acknowledgements
This dissertation was supervised by Chris Reade and Stuart Fitzgerald of the Business IT
committee within Kingston Business School. I would like to thank Chris and Stuart for their
guidance in general and in particular for their ability to spot my obvious mistakes. Thanks also
to the entire staff at Kingston for their open doors and general ability to assist in any times of
need.
An additional heartfelt thank you must be given to Luis Andujo for his meticulous editing and
review of this dissertation.
A special thanks to my wonderful and supportive wife over these past two years to make this
dissertation and degree a reality.

Summary of Contents
Abstract 3
Preface 4
1 Introduction 12
2 Technology Background and Literature Review 14
2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................14
2.2 Technology Background .......................................................................................14
2.3 Foundational Theoretical Review ........................................................................17
2.4 Foundational Research Concepts.........................................................................18
2.5 Industry Background ............................................................................................19
3 Methodology 23
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................23
3.2 Research Design.....................................................................................................23
3.3 Alternative Methodology Review.........................................................................24
3.4 Data Collection Methodology ...............................................................................24
3.5 Choice of the Population Investigated and Sampling Procedure......................25
3.6 Measurement Methodology Employed................................................................26
3.7 Data Analysis Methodology..................................................................................26
4 Results and Analysis 27
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................27
4.2 Objective One: Determination of the Increase in Use........................................27
4.3 Objective Two: Technology Theory Differentials ..............................................39
4.4 Objective Three: Technology Standards.............................................................62
4.5 Objective Four: 3D Graphics Technology Future..............................................76
5 Conclusions and Recommendations 84
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................84

Summary of Contents
5.2 Objective One: Increase in Use ............................................................................84
5.3 Objective Two: Theoretical Differentials............................................................87
5.5 Objective Four: Technology Future ....................................................................91
6 Appendices 93
6.1 Interview Summaries ............................................................................................93
6.2 Glossary of Terms................................................................................................123
7 References 133
8 Dissertation Proposal 139

Table of Contents
Abstract 3
Preface 4
Conventions used within this document 4
Acknowledgements 4
1 Introduction 12
2 Technology Background and Literature Review 14
2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................14
2.2 Technology Background .......................................................................................14
2.3 Foundational Theoretical Review ........................................................................17
2.4 Foundational Research Concepts.........................................................................18
2.5 Industry Background ............................................................................................19
2.5.1 Market and Major Companies Background 20
2.5.2 Principle Contributing Corporations 20
2.5.2.1 Entertainment 20
2.5.2.2 Defence & Manufacturing 21
2.5.2.3 Medical 22
3 Methodology 23
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................23
3.2 Research Design.....................................................................................................23
3.3 Alternative Methodology Review.........................................................................24
3.4 Data Collection Methodology ...............................................................................24
3.5 Choice of the Population Investigated and Sampling Procedure......................25
3.6 Measurement Methodology Employed................................................................26
3.7 Data Analysis Methodology..................................................................................26
4 Results and Analysis 27
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................27
4.2 Objective One: Determination of the Increase in Use........................................27

Table of Contents
4.2.1 Factors Associated with the Increase in Use 27
4.2.1.1 Factor One: Trend toward Digitisation / Software Utilisation 28
4.2.1.2 Factor Two: Growing Adoption of ISO Standards 31
4.2.1.3 Factor Three: Enhanced Visualisation of Results 31
4.2.1.4 Factor Four: Improved Computer Hardware 32
4.2.1.5 Factor Five: Reduced Production Cost 32
4.2.2 Case Study: BAE Systems Procurement Analysis 33
4.2.3 Interview Results – Increase in Use 38
4.3 Objective Two: Technology Theory Differentials ..............................................39
4.3.1 Introduction 39
4.3.2 Foundational Technology Theory 39
4.3.2.1 Geometric Transformations 41
4.3.2.2 Differential One: Rigid Bodies 41
4.3.2.3 Differential Two: Transformation Rotation 43
4.3.2.4 Differential Three: Projection Transformation 48
4.3.2.5 Differential Four: Rasterisation 49
4.3.2.6 Differential Five: Viewing Methodology 54
4.3.2.7 Differential Six: Modeling 55
4.3.2.8 Differential Seven: Lighting 58
4.3.3 Interview Results – Theoretical Differentials 61
4.4.2 The Need for Standards 63
4.4.3 Standards Choices 65
4.4.3.1 The New VRML 65
4.4.3.2 U3D – A Better X3D? 66
4.4.3.3 Dassault’s 3D XML 67
4.4.3.4 Entertainment Industries COLLADA 68
4.4.4 Standards Theoretical Differentials 69
4.4.4.1 Introduction 69
4.4.4.2 Differential One: NURBS Curves / Surfaces 70
4.4.4.3 Differential Two: Meshes 71
4.4.4.4 Differential Three: Quaternion Rotations 72
4.4.5 Standards Adoption Issues 73
4.4.6 Interview Results 75
4.5 Objective Four: 3D Graphics Technology Future..............................................76
4.5.2 Technological Revolution 76
4.5.3 Future 3D Graphics Technology 77
4.5.3.1 Cell Processor Technology 77

Table of Contents
4.5.3.2 User Interface Technology 78
4.5.4 Future of 3D Graphics Theory 79
4.5.4.1 Introduction 79
4.5.4.2 Programmable Pixel Shading & Matrix Radiosity 79
4.5.4.3 Sub-Surface Scattering, Motion Blur and Depth of Field 81
4.5.4.4 Photon Tracing 82
4.5.5 Interview Results 83
5 Conclusions and Recommendations 84
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................84
5.2 Objective One: Increase in Use ............................................................................84
5.2.1 Conclusions 84
5.2.2 Conclusion Based Recommendations 86
5.3 Objective Two: Theoretical Differentials............................................................87
5.5 Objective Four: Technology Future ....................................................................91
6 Appendices 93
6.1 Interview Summaries ............................................................................................93
6.1.1 Medical Industry Interviews 93
6.1.1.1 John Klimeck – Apple Technology Specialist 93
6.1.1.2 Dr. Henri Ford – MD Vice President and Surgeon-in-Chief 98
6.1.2 Defence / Manufacturing Industry Interviews 103
6.1.2.1 Brent Freeman –UNIX Systems Specialist 103
6.1.2.2 Liz Bodily – Account Executive Raytheon Corporation 108
6.1.3 Entertainment Industry Interviews 113
6.1.3.1 Bert Hickson – Movie Producer 113
6.1.3.2 Gianpierro Leone – Entertainment Technology Specialist 118
6.2 Glossary of Terms................................................................................................123
7 References 133
8 Dissertation Proposal 139

Table of Figures
Figure 1. Ivan Sutherland’s “Sketchpad” 14
Figure 2. CAGR for 3D Graphics Applications 29
Figure 3. U.S. Engineers Increased Use of 3D Technology 29
Figure 4. Primary Activities of Internet Users 30
Figure 5. Dassault’s CADME Tool Design vs. Reality 33
Figure 6. BAE Systems Software Procurement (2004) 34
Figure 7. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Software Maintenance (2004) 35
Figure 8. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Software Suppliers (2004) 36
Figure 9. BAE Systems Engineering Software and Maintenance Spends (2004) 37
Figure 10. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Maintenance Suppliers (2004) 38
Figure 11. Translation of a Set of Points 42
Figure 12. Translation of Space 42
Figure 13. Transformation Coordinate System Rotation 43
Figure 14. Left Hand System Rotation 45
Figure 15. Right Hand System Rotation 45
Figure 16. Derivation of Combined Rotation Formulas 46
Figure 17. Example of Parallel Projection 48
Figure 18. Example of Perspective Projection 49
Figure 19. Engineering Rasterisation 50
Figure 20. Entertainment Rasterisation 50
Figure 21. Convex and Concave Polygon Comparison 51
Figure 22. Example of a Wireframe Model 55
Figure 23. Dassault’s 3D Engineering 58
Figure 24. DreamWorks Animation 58
Figure 25. Diffuse Reflection Interaction 59
Figure 26. Interview Results for Objective Two – Theoretical Differentials 61
Figure 27. “Proprietary Barrier” of 3D Graphics Data 64
Figure 28. Dassault’s 3D XML for All 67
Figure 29. Triangular Mesh with Shared Vertices 71
Figure 30. 3D Graphics Standards Comparison 74
Figure 31. Interview Results for Objective Three – Technology Standards 75

Table of Figures
Figure 32. IBM’s Cell Processor 78
Figure 33. Comparison of New Programmable Pixel Shading Technique 80
Figure 34. Interview Results for Objective Four – Technology Future 83

Introduction
1 Introduction
If one reflects on the evolutionary trajectory of modern computing one can trace seminal
events: the move from vacuum tubes to microprocessors, from mainframes to PC’s, from land
lines to mobile and from DOS to Windows. Each of these technological milestones marks
critical points in the advancement of computing as we know it today.
The exponential increase in the quality of the 3D technology is a critical point in its evolution.
Its capacity to increase productivity and efficiencies by orders of magnitude has replaced old
and created new methodologies. The 3D graphics revolution is well on its way.
The purpose of this research is to examine the impact 3D graphics is having within the
medical, defence/manufacturing and entertainment industries. A description of the technology
will be given with a critical evaluation of its recent increase in use, the theoretical differentials
between the focus industries, the push for standards, and the future outlook of the technology.
Businesses are discovering the extensive application range for this technology which is leading
to remarkable advances in how companies utilise and adapt to its use. It is imperative that
research is conducted on this global trend in order to create a frame of reference from which
interested industries may derive intelligent guidance.
The research scope pertains to the impact of 3D graphics on the industries that are currently
utilising the technology. The objectives of this research are as follows:
Why is there an increase in use?
What factors have led to the sudden increase in usage?
Are major corporations truly investing resources and capitol in this technology?

Introduction
Are there fundamental differences in the technology from one business application to the
next?
What are the theoretical application differences?
Why do these differences exist?
Are there currently international standards for this technology?
What are the benefits of having standards for a technology?
Are there current standards organisations for this technology?
What differences exist between the standards?
What is the future viability of this technology in the focus industries?
Is 3D graphics a technology that warrants similar attention as moving from DOS to
Windows?
Do industries believe this is a graphical representation revolution?
What are the utilisation plans and implications associated to these key industries?
Interviews with key industry sponsors have yielded insights into the impact of this technology
as well as the depth and spectrum of future integration. The intended audience of this research
are the primary industries who are currently utilizing or are in the process of implementing this
technology and the University research community.
The research data will determine whether this technology is justifiably revolutionary. The
rapid growth and application of these technologies has created a vacuum of pertinent scientific
literature which this paper is striving to fill. Industry experts need useful executive
information to create intelligent guidance for their respective business objectives. By
answering the given objectives this research will fill this void by providing useful and
deployable recommendations.

2 Technology Background and Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This section will identify technology and its primary contributors, review the theoretical
foundations, and list the key concepts to be investigated. The following sections will
contribute to the research regarding the concepts and objectives outlined in the introduction.
They explore relevant areas leading to the core research and analysis of the paper.
2.2 Technology Background
This section will explore the theoretical and empirical contributions to the field. There are
many contributors to the theory and technology of 3D graphics which primarily began in the
1960’s. As fundamental technologies of 3-DM, rendering and homogeneous coordinates were
developed in the 1960’s and 1970’s largely at MIT,
Harvard, and the University of Utah in the United
States. One of the first instances of 3D graphics was
in the defence industry in 1962 as a technique and
application of engineering weapon systems with a
program written by Ivan Sutherland called
“Sketchpad” (See Figure 1).(Sutherland, 2005)
Figure 1. Ivan Sutherland’s “Sketchpad”Source: XXX
Sketchpad is a system that included the direct manipulation of 2-dimensional graphics utilizing
a light pen. Sutherland has gone on to become what many would call the father of 3D graphics
theory. A highly experimental contribution was also made by Sutherland while at Harvard

Technology Background and Literature Review
University. He created the first interactive 3D display in a head-mounted unit with the help of
Chuck Seitz of MIT. This was the first sophisticated example of virtual reality.
In 1968 Sutherland moved to the University of Utah to work with Dave Evans. Over the next
seven years researchers at the University of Utah contributed heavily to 3D graphics theory by
developing the frame buffer, the z-buffer, texture mapping, and 3D shading (see Section 4.3).
They then applied this technology in an interactive flight simulator – much of which was
planned by Ed Catmull while on this groundbreaking team. In 1973 the New York Institute of
Technology began experimenting with 3D graphics movies. Dr. Alexander Schure, who had a
dream to create the first 3D graphics animated movie, impressively moved the technology
forward. Schure teamed with Catmull to create the first computer graphics lab in 1973.
Sufficient hardware capacity and processing power allowed for the advancement of this
technology as time went on, which then allowed a move into the entertainment industry in the
form of games and movies in 1978 via George Lucas. Around this time Catmull left NYIT and
went to work for the newly established Lucasfilm Computer Development Division. From
there multiple films were produced utilising 3D graphics including the now exceptionally
famous Star Wars movies (Allen, 1996). At the time Lucasfilm was working on integrating 3D
graphics into movies, many other studios began with television and TV commercials. Several
programs used these graphics in their television shows like “ABC World News Tonight”, the
National Football League (NFL), and “NBC Nightly News” (Allen, 1996).
In 1982 Star-Trek II contained an amazing sixty seconds of the most advanced and exciting
fully animated 3D graphics to date. The “Genesis Effect” was a sequence of events which
included a missile being propelled toward a dead planet, an impact and explosion scene, and a
transformation effect of the dead rock into a liveable ocean filled earth-like planet. This scene
was produced at Lucasflims and required “radically new computer graphics algorithms,
including one for creating convincing computer fire and another to produce realistic mountains

and shorelines from fractal equations”. This scene was the first ever 3D graphics sequence
used as the “centre of attention” (Allen, 1996).
In 1983 and then in 1984, TRON and the Last Starfighter were released with disappointing
results. Although these movies utilised technologically advanced 3D graphics, the storylines
were very weak and they were ultimately categorised as failures. Following these setbacks
there was a long break in 3D movies until 1989 with the successful release of James
Cameron’s “The Abyss”. Lucasfilm “created the first completely computer-generated entirely
organic looking and thoroughly believable creature to be realistically integrated with live
action footage and characters” (Allen, 1996). This film opened the flood gates for 3D
animated movies.
After multiple successes with Lucasfilms, Catmull assisted in the first pure full length 3D
animated movie, “Toy Story”. This film provided some of the most advanced techniques seen
to date and further propelled the technology forward with new 3D movies so numerous to
name being made thereafter.
Digital games began as large kiosk types of arcade games which have now evolved into hand-
held 3-DM games (Allen, 1996). The implementation of this technology has led the way for
new types of computer processors, storage, and architecture. As late as 1992, John Carmack,
Adrian Carmack, and John Romero began the “id Software” company. They produced a game
which used a much simplified ray-tracing and texture mapping technique that advanced the
field even further. This theoretical transformation opened the flood gates to new and
innovative ways of implementing 3D graphics across multiple industries.
Each of these contributions has advanced the science and theory of 3D graphics to the level we
currently enjoy. With continuing advances being made regularly, (many patented techniques
are being created quickly by major Entertainment studios like Pixar), the technology and its
theory is set to continue its remarkable explosion.

2.3 Foundational Theoretical Review
This section will provide a general description of the key theoretical concepts of the
technology that are in use today. The goal of computerised 3D graphics is to reproduce
realistic images of virtual scenes using computers. Often 3D graphics presents a cost effective
substitute for expensive, dangerous, or impossible real-life situations (Savchenko, 2000).
The field of 3D computer graphics can be categorized into the following primary areas:
Modeling: Deals with the mathematical specification of shape and appearance
properties in a way that can be stored on the computer
Animation: Is a technique to create the illusion of motion through a sequence of
images
Rendering: Is a term inherited form art and deals with the creation of shaded images
from 3D graphical models (Shirley, 2002)
One can further subdivide the steps in 3D graphics creation into five elements:
Geometric Transformations: Provides the foundation for the representation of
virtual objects, motion, and object projections to the screen.
Rasterisation: Is the art of drawing primitives on the computer screen. Techniques
that improve the drawing of primitives are utilized in this area such as shading and
texture mapping.

Viewing: Viewing provides different approaches to viewing objects, namely “world-
to-screen” and “screen-to-world” techniques, clipping, and hidden surface removal.
Modeling: The process in which various multiple primitives are modelled in the
virtual world.
Lighting: The perception of colouring and lighting in drawing a scene realistically.
These areas will be fully investigated with respect to the theoretical industry differences in the
results and analysis section forthcoming.
2.4 Foundational Research Concepts
The foundational concepts that will be investigated in this research are related to the objectives
and provide the catalyst for useful executive information. These concepts are outlined as the
following:
The utilisation of the technology and who are the primary users
The differences in the technology between the revealed primary industry users
The standards the are in place for this technology (or lack thereof)

Whether or not this technology is permanent and potentially revolutionary
These concepts have been reviewed and approved by participants in the research. Several of
the interviewees have agreed that these subject areas are critical to further understanding the
technology and its application.
2.5 Industry Background
This section will provide a description of the field, the primary markets, and the main
participants within this market.
The rapidly expanding market for 3D graphics is immense. Multiple companies are engaged in
the proliferation of this technology worldwide. In general, the 3D graphics field refers to the
process of creating graphics, or the field of study of 3D computer graphic techniques and its
related technology (Wikipedia, 2005). The following sections further describe the primary
companies and market background in this field.

2.5.1 Market and Major Companies Background
The primary markets in this field have been defined and classified into four primary areas:
Entertainment: Video Games, animated movies, film special effects
Defence / Manufacturing: CAD/CAM, Simulation
Medical: Imaging, MRI
Other: Information visualisation, Web 3D (Shirley, 2000)
These areas are hereafter regarded as the focus industries for this research.
2.5.2 Principle Contributing Corporations
The above markets also represent the principle industries in this field. The top companies that
are involved in each segment are defined below.
2.5.2.1 Entertainment

The entertainment industry is racing to make the next big animated blockbuster based on 3D
technology (Hernandez, 2004). Within the entertainment market there are two major
categories; i.e. films and gaming.
Films: DreamWorks, Pixar, Lucasfilms, Twentieth Century Fox Studios, Disney
and Miramax.
Games: Sony, Nintendo, Electronic Arts and Microsoft
2.5.2.2 Defence & Manufacturing
The defence industry is systematically improving its 3D applications to expand its
competitiveness in a growing yet demanding market (Scruby, 2003). This market can be
broken down into CAD/CAM/CAE (CADME) and simulation fields.
CAD/CAM: SolidWorks, UGS/Solid Edge, and Autodesk, Dassault Systèmes, PTC,
Spatial Technology and Unigraphics Solutions
Simulators: Dassault Systèmes, Quantum3D, MultiGen-Paradigm Inc. (MPI),
Evans & Sutherland (E&S), Logicon Incorporated (Northrop Grumman), Lockheed
Martin Information Systems, Raytheon Corporation, SEOS Displays Limited,
Alenia Marconi Systems (AMS), Finmeccanica of Italy, and BAE Systems of the
United Kingdom.

2.5.2.3 Medical
The medical industry has discovered the benefits of the technology. In particular its powerful
training capabilities, resonance scanning, and patient simulations all help physician decision
making and consequently, patient outcomes.
Medical Educational Technologies Inc, Medical Simulation Corporation, Mentice
Corporation, Xitact SA, Simbionix, and Immersion Corporation
The above companies are leading the way in new technological advancements, primarily due
to the successes of the entertainment and defence/manufacturing markets.
It has been determined that in order to present a complete view of the business market and
future of the technology, key industry experts will be interviewed.

3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This section will outline the actual research design followed, the alternative methods reviewed,
the primary and secondary sources of data, how the data was collected, the population that was
studied, the measurement methods employed and the data analysis methods utilised.
3.2 Research Design
The primary research design followed for this dissertation will include complete implication
analysis of the technology, qualitative interviews with key industry experts, observational data
gathering, a case study investigation, and the utilization of projective techniques (due to the
technical nature of certain questions) – these combined are defined as a “mixed” research
methodology.

Methodology
3.3 Alternative Methodology Review
A mixed strategy methodology has been used in order to deliver a comprehensive and
complete research programme. A full review of the alternative research methodologies has
been completed in order to determine the proper chosen methodology. Due to the minimal
availability of statistical information regarding the business aspects of the technology, a
suitable quantitative analytical research method was eliminated. A second process considered
was a pure qualitative methodology. This strategy although viable, was not considered solely
effective as there were other sources, like case studies, that allow for further in-depth analysis
into the field.
3.4 Data Collection Methodology
The data has been collected through a series of strategic methods that have elicited proprietary
internal information as well as publicly available material. Secondary data is the principle axis
upon which this dissertation is built. The three areas of data collection consist of the
following:
Academic and Media Publishing – The data consists of theoretical and applied
sources to supplement the resources above.

Methodology
Interviews - a detailed structured interview format was developed based on the aims
and objectives of the research. These objectives were categorised and presented to
the interviewees as specific industry questions leading to key solutions.
Proprietary Procurement Data (Case Study) – this proprietary data was
specifically retrieved from the defence industry and relates to the procurement
history of this type of software. The author has been given rights to report on this
specific procurement data from BAE Systems, the worlds third largest defence
contractor.
3.5 Choice of the Population Investigated and Sampling Procedure
The procedures for determining the population to interview and the industries to focus on has
been based on the academic published reports, personal experience, and available books. A
strong subset of the selected industries with regards to different levels of implementers, users,
and developers were selected. A Vice President and world renowned physician of Children’s
Hospital Los Angeles, two technology implementers, a UNIX administrator, a
Producer/Director, and an Account Executive were chosen from the focus industries to meet
this need.

Methodology
3.6 Measurement Methodology Employed
The principle measurement tool employed for the qualitative research is a comprehensive
interview survey based on the objectives of the research. The interview survey has been
categorised for each designated objective. The appendix presents the 3D graphics interview
survey as presented to the interviewees. Survey question relevancy was confirmed by to key
industry experts; John Patterson, a CTO for Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, and John
Klimeck, an Apple programming and hardware specialist.
3.7 Data Analysis Methodology
The data analysis methods employed centre around a thematic analysis of the qualitative
interviews, a specific case study analysis, and analysis of the academic research materials
available (Mador, 2003).

4 Results and Analysis
4.1 Introduction
The results of the research are both exciting and enlightening. The analysis illuminates the
challenges and highlights the potential of the technology. This section will present, in detail,
the results of the analysis as related to the objectives of the research. It will be divided into
four corresponding sections and will analyse the research data for each.
4.2 Objective One: Determination of the Increase in Use
One of the primary reasons there is such a large increase in this technology is due to the fact
that “almost any endeavour can make some use of (3D) computer graphics” (Shirley, 2002).
This assumption is the foundation of our overall research.
4.2.1 Factors Associated with the Increase in Use
The following list provides the foundational factors driving increased usage of this technology:

Results and Analysis
1. the continued trend toward digitalization
2. the increase of the software portion in projects and products
3. the growing adoption of future-proof ISO Standards
4. the enhanced visualisation of project results on displays
5. the strengthened dissemination of high performance standard hardware and Internet
lowering the barriers to entry hence increasing consumers and producers
6. cost reduction in manufacturing, training, research and production (BITManagement,
2005)
4.2.1.1 Factor One: Trend toward Digitisation / Software Utilisation
Extensive research has confirmed the increase in use with an ever increasing dependence on of
3D graphics software. Based on current use and “moving forward” plans, the amount of
projected spend per respective industry follows:
Digital Gaming: ~$37 billion projected to 2007 (Thuriam, 2003)
Animated Movies: ~$50 billion projected through 2005 (global industry) (Thuriam, 2003)
Medical Imaging: ~$1.8 billion estimated to 2008 (Tanghe, 2004)
(CAD/CAM/CAE)
3D Defence Industry: ~$7.5 billion (Gufstafson, 2004)

The adoption of this technology by the entertainment industry has led to an unbelievable
market of over $50 billion annually, with many more 3D graphics movies and games
scheduled for release in the
upcoming years. The gaming
industry alone is a $37 billion
dollar annual market that
continues to grow at an annual
rate of over 24% (Philippines,
2003).
Figure 2. CAGR for 3D Graphics Applications
This adolescent game market is often
overlooked due to the targeted
entertainment age group of 20-30 year
old males, yet these kids are a major
adopter of this technology and they are
utilising it to its fullest potential (DFC,
2004). The estimated CAGR for
specific elements within the industry is
presented in Figure 2.
Figure 3. U.S. Engineers Increased Use of 3D Technology
This overview provides a look into the growth of the industry by sector and where the 3D
graphics growth rate is expected. Although the defence industry has remained relatively
constant with regards to the utilisation of this technology, the entertainment and gaming
industry adoption has exploded over the last decade.
(Meloni, 2002)
(Geer, 2005)

In addition, Figure 3 is a recent survey of U.S. engineers who use 3D technology in their
mechanical design applications as their main design approach.
A great deal of expansion is expected in the Web 3D space, much of which is due to the online
global gaming community. Interactive games being played over the Internet continue to lead
the way in popularity as shown in Figure 4 (Nie, 2004).
Figure 4. Primary Activities of Internet Users
(Nie, 2004)

4.2.1.2 Factor Two: Growing Adoption of ISO Standards
In Section 4.4 below, the discovery of the current standards initiatives and consortiums related
to 3D graphics technology will be given. This section provides a full overview of all the
standards issues currently related to this technology and the move toward an international
standard for all.
4.2.1.3 Factor Three: Enhanced Visualisation of Results
One of the primary areas within the hardware field that systematically advanced 3D graphics
was the advent of raster graphics. The industry move from vector displays – which represents
an image as a list of line segments – to raster graphics – an image that is subdivided into a
regular mosaic of small, usually rectangular cells or pixels – provided a giant leap in the ability
to create realistic images (Savchenko, 2000). Raster displays typically utilise pixels that are
laid out in a rectangular array, or raster. These vary by the size of the display or the number of
pixels (resolution) (Shirley, 2000). As hardware progresses the use of advanced 3D graphics
algorithms and methods will continue to dramatically improve the projected visualisation.
Raster displays utilising the evolution of the theoretical aspects of the technology have
dramatically improved the visualisation aspects of the 3D graphics experience.

Results and AnalysisResults and Analysis
4.2.1.4 Factor Four: Improved Computer Hardware
“The advances in the field of computer graphics depend heavily on the evolution of computer
hardware” (Savchenko, 2000). There is no doubt that the increases in the availability and
power of new hardware have been instrumental in the proliferation of 3D graphics. The use of
this technology is based on the foundation and availability of low cost hardware capable of
generating 3D graphics. As described by the BBC, graphics will continue to permeate our way
of life far beyond what we see today. “Computer graphics are an inseparable part of all media
now – all sorts of images are digitally created even if you don’t know it” (Andrews, 2002).
4.2.1.5 Factor Five: Reduced Production Cost
A key additional factor in the proliferation of the technology is the reduced cost in design,
planning, manufacturing, distribution and maintenance. Each step of the product lifecycle can
be reduced by utilising the 3D graphics produced by the engineers in the earliest stages. As an
example of this revolutionary change, the building of Dassault’s Falcon 7X business jet is “the
first aircraft to be designed entirely by virtual reality” (Reid, 2005).
One of the most time consuming and expensive areas of creating an aircraft is the prototype
stages and various simulated models that have to be physically created. By designing the
aircraft with 3D design tools like CATIA, the engineers are able to simulate every possible
variance from “how we would assemble it, manufacture it, maintain it, and how we would
support the aircraft in service” (Reid, 2005). 3D graphics allow for every step to be planned

virtually (see Figure 5), saving an estimated 50% in the production of this aircraft. As
examples like Dassault’s new
aircraft continue to occur, the
innovative use of 3D graphics
will revolutionise the way
products are designed and
manufactured.
Figure 5. Dassault’s CADME Tool Design vs. Reality
4.2.2 Case Study: BAE Systems Procurement Analysis
There is a clear correlation between a company’s spend on this technology and its increased
usage. The world’s third largest defence and aerospace contractor, BAE Systems, has
dramatically increased its spend on this technology. In Figure 6 below, the amount spent on
software by BAE Systems in 2004 is provided. Notice the amount spent for engineering tools,
which incorporates the primary software for the CADME technology.
(Reid, 2005)

Figure 6. BAE Systems Software Procurement (2004)
Figure 7 below reveals the software maintenance spend in CADME tools, which adds to the
overall amount of engineering software spend of ~£7.6m to reflect a total of over £17.212
million annually (new CADME tools + CADME software maintenance). These combined
amounts rank 2nd in overall IT procurement spend for BAE Systems in 2004. Only the
amount spent for Common-Off-The-Shelf (COTS)/PC software (Microsoft is the primary
spends in this category) is higher than the engineering tools total. This ranking is against all
other categories of IT spending for BAE Systems and reveals the commitment of the company
toward CADME software tools which utilise 3D graphics programming.

Figure 7. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Software Maintenance (2004)
Figure 8 provides a list of engineering software companies and the amounts they billed BAE
Systems for new software purchases in 2004. These are the top companies utilised by BAE
Systems for CADME software. Each of these software companies have been identified as
utilising 3D graphics methods within their software.

Figure 8. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Software Suppliers (2004)
BAE Systems has determined within their engineering department that ongoing maintenance
of, and new investment in, this technology is critical to their competitiveness in the aerospace
and defence industry. Based on this assumption, BAE Systems systematically made serious
investments in this technology over the past three years. This is evident in the initial and
ongoing investment as revealed in the below Figure 9. The procurement spends for software
engineering tools and software maintenance are provided from 2002 through 2004 with a clear
trend shown.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Millions
2002 2003 2004
Year
BAE Systems Engineering Software
Procurement
Engineering Tools
Software
Maintenance
Figure 9. BAE Systems Engineering Software and Maintenance Spends (2004)
The amount spent in 2002 reflects an initial investment in the engineering software of over 20
million GBP, with the subsequent years showing a dramatic decrease of over half that initial
investment. The software maintenance procurement nearly quadrupled due to this investment
as well as other software purchases. This increase has been attributed to the CADME
engineering tools as reflected in Figure 7 (over a quarter of the software maintenance spend of
£38M is attributed to CADME related software tools).

4.2.3 Interview Results – Increase in Use
This section will provide the interview results for the first objective. The interview questions
are structured to provide for a comparable review of the responses. This comparable view is
presented in Figure 10 with the outline of the questions, the industry category, and the
individual names.
Figure 10. BAE Systems 3D Graphics Maintenance Suppliers (2004)
There is a wide range of participants yet the answers are relatively consistent. There is one
clear fact; the technology is growing in each of the industries surveyed. The comments
associated with this questionnaire reveal that there is a very strong move toward 3D graphics in
the entertainment and medical fields. The defence industry believes they are well established
and that growth will continue at a steady pace. Most of the factors cited by the respondents
attributed the growth of the technology to new hardware and software advancements as well as
the increasingly lower cost for these tools. In particular, Dr. Ford disclosed that he believes
this technology will be a fundamental factor in the training and education of doctors worldwide
through robotics and the 3D software that powers them.

4.3 Objective Two: Technology Theory Differentials
4.3.1 Introduction
The differences in the technology theory of the three principle industries, i.e. Medical,
Defence/Aerospace, and Entertainment, will be explored here. Although each industry is now
utilising most aspects of the technology, there are primary theoretical differences within each
that dominate there respective fields. The Entertainment industry typically utilises most of the
aspects of the technology (which will be seen in the analysis), the defence and aerospace
industry predominantly employ CADME, while the medical industry utilises scanning
techniques and CADME. The below will provide the base theory of the technology and
discover any industry differences in the application of its theory.
4.3.2 Foundational Technology Theory
The foundation of the technology theory can be divided into five main categories which will be
discussed in detail below. These categories provide the basis for the determination of the
differentials in the application of the technology. These main categories include:
1. Geometric Transformations
a. Rigid transformations vs. Structure Deforming Transformations
b. Rotation Transformation

c. Projection Transformation
2. Rasterisation
a. Texture Mapping
b. Anti-Aliasing
3. Viewing
a. Screen to World Method
b. World to Screen Method
4. Modeling
a. Wireframe Models
b. Polygonal Models
c. Billboard Models
d. Cubic Curves / Bicubic Patches
e. Landscapes
f. Voxel Models
5. Lighting
a. Forms of Light
b. Radiosity

4.3.2.1 Geometric Transformations
Geometric transformations are the foundation for the representation of projected virtual objects
to the screen, virtual objects themselves, and their descriptions of motion. Transformations are
the mathematical descriptions for location, orientation, and motion of virtual objects and their
visibility to the viewer.
Points are used in the representation of objects in the virtual world. In 3D space, a point A can
be described by three scalar values as A(x,y,z). The scalar describes the magnitude of how far
the point is from the origin. In addition, the entity of direction can be in the form of velocity as
an example. Vectors are utilised to represent the magnitude and direction of an objects
position. A vector in a plane will be denoted by V(x,y). Points, scalar values and vectors
allow for the creation of virtual objects and worlds.
4.3.2.2 Differential One: Rigid Bodies
Once an object has been defined in 3D space, transformations of a rigid body (objects that have
a restriction as to the distance between all of its points to never change), can be expressed by
two varying types of transformations: the translations and the rotations (Savchenko, 2002).
Rigid bodies represent the first differential within the application of 3D graphics. For
applications such as CAM/CAD/CAE and the medical field, typically the object representation
is fixed or rigid, whereas in entertainment the object must transform and move, which is
referred to as structure deforming transformations or STD’s. STD’s are utilised in most
applications yet are a principle driving force in movies and game programming as opposed to

rigid object modeling in defence/aerospace and medical (i.e. airplanes or teeth are rigid objects
that do not transform, only move).
The translation of an object is simply the movement of the object to a new specified
coordinate position. Translation transformation can occur via two different methods; either
you can move the points of the object/vector (Figure 11), or you can move the coordinate space
(Figure 12).
Figure 11. Translation of a Set of Points
Figure 12. Translation of Space
For 3D space, a translation transformation of a point A(x,y,z) into A’(x’,y’,z’) can be described
as: x’ = x + tx
y’ = y + ty
z’ = z + tz
Where tx, ty, and tz are translation displacements for each axis. Applying similar methods in 3D
as in 2D provides the translation information.

4.3.2.3 Differential Two: Transformation Rotation
The second type of transformation is that of rotation. Due to the projection of an object to the
screen (will be investigated in the next section); this is the second differential in the theoretical
application of 3D graphics. Due to the application of most CAD systems for the design of
objects, 3D rotation is not always necessary.
With respect to designs and certain
manufacturing applications, the use
of 2D rotation is sufficient. This
doesn’t necessarily imply that for
CAD applications 2D graphics are
used; quit the contrary.
Figure 13. Transformation Coordinate System Rotation
Due to the simplified computational nature of the rotational differences of objects in 2D,
CAD/CAM and a few other applications often use on 2D rotational techniques of 3D objects
(perceived 3D objects). 2D rotation can be described as the application of a right triangle with
angle α as referenced in Figure 13.
The projection of the x and y coordinates onto the axis of X’ and Y’ are facilitated by the
following fundamental functions:
x’ = Y’x + X’y = ysin(α) + xcos(α)
y’ = Y’x + X’y = ycos(α) + (-xsin(α))

The 2D implementation is considerably different and much less complex than its 3D rotational
relative. When implementing a 3D rotation, one must consider additional important factors:
The type of reference system used
Directional aspects of the positive rotations
How the rotations are ordered
When rotating objects in three dimensions, it is imperative to reference the coordinate
system utilised. 3D allows for a right-hand or left hand coordinate system (see Figures 14
and 15) (Dunn, 2002).

Figure 14. Left Hand System Rotation
Figure 15. Right Hand System Rotation
For the purposes of this research, we will use the Left-Handed coordinate system along with
the rotational angles defined as α, β ,g – the angel to turn the XY plane around the “Z axis as
the roll ), ZY around X as the pitch (β), and ZX around Y as the yaw (γ)” (Savchenko, 2000).

These rotations typically follow a specific order – γ first, β second, and α last in terms of the
defined system of reference. Therefore the rotation of a 3D object can be described by three
separate sets of functions utilising the information above and using the similar two dimensional
functions. Figure 16 visually outlines the three functions in order from roll, to pitch, to yaw
with there corresponding functions.
Figure 16. Derivation of Combined Rotation Formulas
As one can see, the difference between a diagram in CADME or similar applications is
computationally and theoretically very different than in most entertainment applications which
require 3D rotations.
In building upon the 3D transformational rotation expressions, matrices often facilitate a
simplified way in expressing these functions. Since a point in 3D space has three coordinates,
utilisation of matrix and vector multiplication can represent a point and a three-by-three matrix
which produces a second vector with the transformed point:

Applying matrices provides multiple advantages in transformations by generalising the
expressions and providing computational shortcuts. As an example, when there are several
transformations, each represented in a matrix form as the following
[X’] = ([X] [A]) · [B] where [A] and [B] are transformation matrices and [X] the vector
argument to be transformed, then ([A] [B]) · [C] = [A] · ([B] [C]) (Due to the matrix property
of associativity). This can then be expressed as [X’] = [X] · ([A] [B])
Associativity of matrices therefore allows for the concatenated transformation matrix:
[K] = [A] · [B]. Thereafter each transformation multiplication has been reduced to
[X’] = [X] · [K]. This is obviously very advantageous when you have multiple consecutive
transformations to perform and will be demonstrated in the forthcoming sections (Savchenko,
2000).

4.3.2.4 Differential Three: Projection Transformation
A third differential is another form of transformation, that of projection.
Projection is an additional transformation process that maps 3D world coordinates to a 2D
video screen coordinates. There are two primary ways to accomplish this mapping; parallel
and perspective projection transformation.
Parallel projection simply maps the
coordinates in the 3D space to the
2D coordinates on the projection
plane in a parallel fashion (see
Figure 17). This mapping is further
described by the angles in which
they are projected. For right angles
of 90 degrees, they are defined as
orthographic.
Figure 17. Example of Parallel Projection
All of the other angles are defined as oblique angles. This projection mapping can be viewed
as the elimination of all z coordinates for all points in space. By removing the z coordinates
you can envision how this eliminates all of the depth perception of the initial 3D image (Dunn,
2002). Perspective projection “creates an image in which the size of the projected image
depends on the distance from the viewer” (Savchenko, 2000). In other words, the size of the
image further from the viewer will be smaller, as opposed to the image closer to the viewer
which would be larger.

By simulating the viewer’s eye which is set at the origin, one can determine the required points
on the projection plane (the video screen) which allows for the following geometric
representation as shown in Figure 18. It is clear from this approach that the triangles will have
the same angles and the distances are proportional to each other (i.e. focus distance to z, and x’
to x). The purpose of describing these to projection transformations is to discover the
differences in application use.
Parallel projection is utilised primarily
in the Engineering field, i.e. CADME
applications, for design applications.
For these applications “the important
qualities of the parallel projection to
preserve parallel lines in the images
and to preserve actual sizes of objects
is more important than a realistic
view” (Savchenko, 2000).
Figure 18. Example of Perspective Projection
4.3.2.5 Differential Four: Rasterisation
This section discusses the process of rasterisation. In the previous section we explored the
creation and initial projection of primitives – we will now look at how these primitives are
represented on the screen coordinates in their entirety via raster displays. The coordinated
lighting of pixels on a display represents the process of rasterisation. Rasterisation

differentials among the industry applications exist predominantly as enhancements or
advanced algorithms for improved visual perception of objects (fourth differential). Typically
engineering design drawings or 3D simulations in CADME applications do not require the best
visually accurate edges or textures. As seen by the below comparison in Figures 19 and 20,
engineering applications are less worried about texture mapping, pixel colouration and
shadows as the entertainment industry is. Entertainment is all about simulating reality down to
the smallest of details, whereas the engineering applications (which include the
defence/aerospace and medical applications) are more interested in the mechanics than
aesthetics.
Figure 19. Engineering Rasterisation
Figure 20. Entertainment Rasterisation
Due to this there are multiple differences and choices in rasterisation that can be either
included or excluded from industry applications. One example is that of rasterising polygons.
Polygons can either be convex or concave by definition. Convex polygons are much simpler
and can be defined as a polygon where any line connecting two points within the polygon
never leaves the boundary of the polygon. The opposite is true for concave polygons. With
(Reid, 2005)
(Pixar, 2005)

the rasterisation process including a horizontal scan-line process for mapping pixels, one can
see the theoretically inherent complexities associated with concave polygons (see Figure 21).
Many applications that are not always interested in flawless or exact visual representation will
calculate only convex polygons – possibly cutting off the ears of the concave polygon and
estimating volume of these associated ears.
Another example is that of texturing. As seen in Figure 20 above, the entertainment world
utilises 3D graphics to simulate the real world. This is often achieved through texture mapping
and anti-aliasing. Similar to linear
and perspective translation
transformations (see beginning of
this section), one can texture map
by using linear and perspective
algorithms. The perspective
texture mapping is utilised when a
more realistic image is desired.
Figure 21. Convex and Concave Polygon Comparison
The following algorithm outlines the theory behind perspective texture mapping. To texture
map a polygon as an example, one can begin by transforming point T(u,v) into the view space
V(x,y,z) (as described earlier) one can represent (u v 0 1) [T] = (x y z 1) as a four-by-four
matrix [T]. Assuming there are two vectors U and V in the view space that are mapped to the
view space with unit length vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1) for simplicity.
(Dunn, 2002)

Also assume O is the origin, it is possible to define mappings of three points from the texture
space as:
Then recovering for the transformation matrix [T]:
(u v 0 1) = (x y z 1)
Next the individual formulas mapping the texture coordinates T(u,v) into view coordinates
V(x,y,z) can be expressed as
x = Ox+ v · Vx + u · Ux
y = Oy+ v · Vy + u · Uy
z = Oz+ v · Vz + u · Uz

By solving these equations for
i = focus · x/z
j = focus · y/z
and solving for x and y, the following two equations are derived to compute texture
coordinates (u,v) for any screen pixel using the two vectors (describing the texture orientation
and a point describing the mapping of the origin of the texture space into the view space – after
solving for u & v and reverse mapping) (Savchenko, 2000).
u =
v=
By utilizing these additional algorithms in C routines, one can perform relatively complex
texture mappings (with a bit more mathematical optimisation) for a polygon. This represents
the additional effort placed on the entertainment 3D realism versus the engineering and the
associated divergence in theory based on the building of texture mapping into translation
transformation equations.
Another area that provides diversity among the applications is that of anti-aliasing. Anti-
aliasing provides a means to reduce unwanted visual effects like the “staircase” effect on rough
lines that often occur when only straightforward rasterisation is employed. The utilisation of
area sampling and filtering provides additional methods of improving the visual effects of the
3D graphics.

4.3.2.6 Differential Five: Viewing Methodology
When speaking about how to view a scene in 3D graphical representation, there are two
distinct methods that are utilized, i.e. World-to-Screen and Screen-to-World. Generally the
world-to-screen method is utilised due to its more realistic and simplistic implementation.
Once again the entertainment industry (principally gaming) will utilise both methods to
enhance virtual reality and enhance the reactive portion of the game.
World-to-screen methodology is the projection of primitives as previously discussed earlier in
this section. Screen-to-World, alternatively called ray-casting or ray-tracing, is quit different
from World-to-Screen projections. Screen-to-World uses rays traced from the pixel on the
screen to the intersection of an object in the world view. The intersection colour is what is
intended to be seen at the pixel on the screen thereby providing the colour information for that
pixel.
The fifth differential is simply the utilisation of both methods by the entertainment industry
whereas other industries predominantly use world-to-screen viewing projections. Games
utilise these algorithms when interpreting interactive commands, something most other
applications need not worry about. By using this method, it can be easier to represent
background images which are a necessity in gaming due to the constant re-drawing of the
surrounding environment. Although this is the case, more games are now employing world-to-
screen projections due to the need to implement clipping, projection modifications, and
rasterisation to improve the reality of the game.

4.3.2.7 Differential Six: Modeling
Once transformations, projection, rasterisation, texture mapping and viewing have been
considered, the representation of complex virtual 3D objects via modeling can be considered,
i.e. modeling. There are many factors in considering which data structure to choose in
representing 3D models. These factors reflect the sixth differential in industry application of
3D graphics. When selecting a modeling scheme, you must consider the specific purpose of
the application, desired quality of the objects, and the rendering method the application is
using (Savchenko, 2000). There are several choices, some of which include wireframe
models, polygonal models, billboard modeling, 3D curves and patches approximations, and
Voxel modeling.
Wireframe models are a representation of
objects as a set of vertices connected by key
edges. Wireframes utilise the world to screen
methodology for viewing and represent the
least expensive modeling application with
respect to computations and rendering. As
the wireframe models do not require
rasterisation or texture mapping of complex
primitives, the expense to represent these is
minimised. (Allen, 2005)
Figure 22. Example of a Wireframe Model
This can be beneficial for applications in the engineering world that do not necessarily require
complex models for representing their projects. Many applications utilise wireframe models in

the initial phases to outline the complex primitives, which can be seen in multiple
preproduction engineering steps.
Polygonal models are a logical modeling scheme for solid masses that describe the exterior of
enclosed volumetric models. As many objects in the real world can be represented by solid
planar surfaces, polygonal models offer a realistic option for representing the 3D virtual world
via polygons. Polygonal models are utilised in engineering applications as they do not always
require repeated re-drawing as with gaming and movies. The use of polygonal models
facilitates the application of both world-to-screen and screen-to-world viewing techniques
which allows for additional flexibility in selecting the path to pursue in developing the
applications.
A third option is Billboard Modeling. Billboard modeling substitutes geometric models with
prefabricated images that are textured on rectangular polygons, thus the name. A billboard in
its most basic terms is a variably textured rectangle with the goal of substituting geometrically
complex objects with simple textured rectangles. This type of modeling requires much less
processing and is therefore a popular choice by gaming programmers (up until recently with
the implementation of landscapes and bi-cubic patching as seen below). Billboard models are
utilised extensively in gaming for background depictions due to the need for redrawing the
background often.
Cubic Curves and Bicubic Patches provide algorithms to improve the precision of solid bodies
such as polygonal meshes for curved surfaces. Since representing objects with curves
represents the real world, cubic curves and bicubic patches offer a much more realistic visual
than using polygonal patches which are planar. The use of 3D curves are formulated similarly
to plane curves yet are differentiated by the size of the vectors. The use of bicubic patches is
formulated as a set of cubic curves which incorporate 16 controls which can be represented as
the following:

s and t are the two parameters which represent the bicubic portion of the patch. [M] represents
a 4x4 matrix and T is its transpose (i.e. M[i,j] = MT[j,i], [G] represents a 4x4 matrix with data
that represents the controls of the patch [Savchenko, 2000]. These representations are utilised
by most applications as they all utilise curved surfaces.
Landscapes are often utilised in applications such as simulators and games to represent
backgrounds. As landscapes are frequently smooth on a larger scale, their representation as
functions is acceptable even though there may be multiple values for two points. Functions
allow for a grid of heights for a matrix of coordinates – which can often be referred to as a
“height field” (Savchenko, 2000). Landscapes provide a simple means of representing
backgrounds for simulators and games for which they are primarily utilised. CADME or
medical applications rarely use landscapes as they are simply not required.
Lastly, a modeling technique that is often utilised in medical imaging (CATV scanners) and
remote sensing is Voxel Models. Voxel techniques represent an alternative to previous
modeling which are labour or resource intensive. Voxel modeling is simply a volume element,
one that uses sampling devices to automate the creation of artificial real-life objects. This
makes the labour intensive creation of traditional analytical objects less attractive as opposed
to Voxel models. Although this is the case, Voxel models are very memory and storage
intensive which must be considered prior to selection.

4.3.2.8 Differential Seven: Lighting
One of the final steps in the creation of 3D graphics is that of lighting. Lighting provides
realism through the interaction between light and the represented objects. Lighting is a critical
and essential requirement for the realism of 3D graphics – the more time spent on lighting and
colour the more realistic the scene. The application of lighting transcends to all of the
applications, yet some ut than others, i.e. entertainment. The primary aspects of
achromatic light, tri-component colour modeling, illumination, shadows, and radiosity are all
aspects of model lighting. One differentiating factor is the application of world to screen or
screen to world projections as described in the projection section. The selection of the type of
projection will correspond to the complexity of the implementation of lighting. Both local and
global world to screen projections must be considered as well as hidden surface removal
increasing this complexity.
ilise it more(Versprille, 2005)
Figure 23. Dassault’s 3D Engineering
Figure 24. DreamWorks Animation
Although this is a difference, one major differential stands out with regards to lighting, that of
radiosity. This is considered the seventh differential among the industries primarily due to the
(DreamWorks, 2005)

fact that CADME and rigid transformations are typically not concerned about diffuse lighting
and shadows.
Radiosity is utilised heavily in the entertainment industry due to the need of realism in films
and games. Figures 23 and 24 provide examples of a CADME application (minimal
shadowing/radiosity) and a movie shot with radiosity and shadowing from Dassault and
DreamWorks. By utilising the radiosity algorithm, one can resolve all global diffuse
interactions whereby diffuse colours for all polygonal objects in the scene could be found
(Savchenko, 2002).
Radiosity takes ray tracing one step further in accounting for ambiguous ambient lights.
Radiosity can be described as radiant power (energy per unit time) emitted by sources of light,
or is received by an objects surface, which is called flux and is measured in watts (Lengyel,
2004). Figure 25 visually describes surface B receiving indirect diffuse light source reflections
from surface A.
The radiosity algorithm can be
described by utilising a balance
of energy in a closed
environment through the theory
of heat transfer.
Figure 25. Diffuse Reflection Interaction

For a surface or patch B, the expression
BB
patch = Epatch + kpatch · Benvironment
This equation expresses B as the radiosity of the patch, E expresses the emission intensity, and
k represents it reflective capability. “As the scene is modelled by a set of plane surface patches,
assuming they are small enough so that radiosity across the patch is constant”, the equation can
be stated as a summation of the radiosity of the other patches (Savchenko, 2000).
If one groups radiosities B, then the below linear equation is produced:
By utilising the matrix information given earlier, this can be represented as the following:
This simple matrix calculation provides the radiosity effects (or the Emission Intensity E)
required for additional radiosity realism. This is utilised chiefly in the entertainment industry
and forms a key differential between the industries with regards to complexity of the
applications. Therefore the primary differences in the application of lighting and radiosity
depends primarily on the programming selections and requirements between the industries

4.3.3 Interview Results – Theoretical Differentials
Surprisingly, most of those interviewed perceive a difference in the theoretical make-up of the
technology. Figure 26 provides the summary of interview questions within this topic.
Figure 26. Interview Results for Objective Two – Theoretical Differentials
Many interviewees discussed the new movie releases that have “wowed” them with their
realism and quality (Hickson, September, 2005). Based primarily on these movies, all believe
that each industry will learn from this new technology and cross-pollinate theories and
discoveries to improve the field (see Figure 26). With the exception of two, most have utilised
the software only in their currently industries. Those two have recently moved from the
entertainment industry to the medical industry perhaps further signalling a shift in the medical
field toward 3D graphics technology. These results validate the notion that the technology
currently has understood theoretical differences and these will someday merge into a common
technology that all industries will utilise.

4.4 Objective Three: Technology Standards
4.4.1 Introduction
“Open standards have driven the e-business revolution” (Smith, 2001). “Historically,
information technology solutions have been most affordable when application and systems
interfaces are based on open standards” (Spencer, 2005). “Widespread use of 3D technologies
offers the promise of enriched media that revolutionises how complex data sets are
communicated” (Intel, 2005). All of these quotes relate to the need for adoptable standards in
the field of 3D graphics. The life of 3D graphics data typically starts as a design for media or
manufacturing with the use of proprietary software and often expensive hardware. The data set
can frequently be very complex and extremely large. After the initial data is used, it is
habitually shelved, often to never be used again unless there is a need to change the design or
specifications. This seems like, and commonly is, a terrible waste of valuable labour and data.
This is repeated all over the world with work and data that cannot easily and inexpensively be
shared both internally and with other industries. Why isn’t this data available? This is a
simple enough question. Historically and up until this point, there is a simple answer: there are
no common adopted international standards for the format, interchange, and extensibility of
this data. Or are there? This section will investigate the current and past initiatives in the
highly competitive arena of 3D graphics standards. We will determine why standards are
needed, review the popular choices for international standards, investigate the theoretical
differences between the key current projects, and identify the adoption issues of a common
international standard.

4.4.2 The Need for Standards
“Each time a new media standard has been enabled in computing and communications, it has
lead to an explosion of new uses and new markets” states Paul Gelsinger, CTO for Intel (Intel,
2004). “Pictures are the “lingua franca” for the worldwide community. If a picture is worth a
thousand words, an animated, interactive 3D model is worth exponentially more” (Williams,
2004). There is little disagreement that standards assist in the proliferation and use of certain
types of technology.
“Interactive 3D graphics are a powerful medium for the communication of ideas, educating of
people and as a source of entertainment” (Intel, 2004). This view is now being echoed
throughout the 3D graphics technology domain and is finally taking hold.
The research conducted has revealed that in several instances, such as the standards set for the
web via W3C consortium, standards have pushed specified computer applications into
mainstream use. One of the main concerns in the field of 3D graphics is that of global reuse
and extensibility. “What’s needed is a common 3D format that enables a company (or
individual) to access the essential 3D data necessary for downstream uses” (Williams, 2004).
Figure 27 below outlines the potential utilisation of 3D content in areas other than design and
engineering. By breaking down the “proprietary barrier” the use in further design testing,
sales, deployment, operations, and redesign are all fathomable. The diagram visually depicts
the current lack of use of the valuable data past the depicted proprietary barrier.
Due to the potentially tremendous application of this data as seen above, the domain of
standards is receiving a great deal of attention. “Supporters (of standards) claim it will do for
3D data what the Jpeg format has done for digital photography and the MP3 format has done
for music” (Wright, 2005).Although this is the case for most industries, companies like
Dassault would state that their standard setting software is superior to any others on the market

currently. Section 4.4.3 below will investigate how specific companies will loose if their
proprietary standards are not adopted internationally. The standardisation of 3D graphics data
can be categorised into the following principle segments:
Data File Format
Data Interchange Format
Data Extensibility and API’s
Each of these areas requires a standard for the
increased use of 3D graphics at the industrial
and personal levels. All three segments are
currently being addressed by several
proprietary and open format standards. The
forthcoming discussion will address the most
fashionable endeavours in the standards debate
to date, and the industry and supporters of
each.
Figure 27. “Proprietary Barrier” of 3D Graphics Data

4.4.3 Standards Choices
4.4.3.1 The New VRML
Approximately 11 years prior, a standard specification for displaying 3D objects was formed in
the structure of Virtual Reality Modeling Language, or VRML. A VRML consortium was
established and for the most part developers utilised this standard specification for the
implementation of 3D objects via vector graphics. “VRML is a 3D file format delivered over
an Internet connection. The client software interprets the file format to render 3D models, their
surface properties, visual effects such as lighting, and animated behaviours and user
interaction”, stated Web3D Consortium Director Tony Parisi (Geer, 2005). Yet due to the
slowness of the Internet and limited hardware capabilities when VRML began, there was little
initial demand for this technology standard. The VRML Consortium has since been
transformed into the Web3D Consortium with a new international standard formed to improve
upon VRML.
In 2002, the Web3D Consortium developed VRML’s successor, X3D. X3D is backward
compatible with VRML and was ISO approved in 2004. X3D is a step improvement due to the
addition of state of the art rendering and improved programming capabilities. Yet arguably the
greatest advancement was an XML based format. This new addition allows for the integration
of X3D into Web Services and the standardisation of format. This fact alone has generated a
great deal of interest among the commercial community in utilising 3D graphics in the
flourishing field of Web Services. “X3D generates images via encrypted, highly compressed
algorithms that systems execute when they open graphics files” (Geer, 2005). X3D was
originally supported by the worlds largest chip manufacturer, Intel, yet Intel has recently pulled
its support of X3D in favour of a more proprietary selection, U3D.

4.4.3.2 U3D – A Better X3D?
So why has Intel left the umbrella of X3D? There appears to be two primary reasons for this.
First, many believe that X3D is too complex and contains too much (Funnell, 2005). X3D, at
its core, addresses issues related to rendering of 3D content. A down side to X3D is its lack of
tools which limits the technologies usefulness (Geer, 2005). X3D therefore can be difficult to
implement, maintain, and utilise due to its limited toolset. The new and Intel supported
standard, Universal 3D (U3D), doesn’t worry itself as much with these rendering issues. U3D
is comparable to taking a screen shot of a 3D model scene with all of the same transformations,
projections, lighting, and viewing as a normal 3D model.
U3D’s consortium named 3DIF, or 3D Industry Forum, was established in 2003 to “develop
global 3D standards intended for downstream 3D visualization applications” (Ecma, 2005).
3DIF is sponsored by Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, Hitachi, HP, Intel, Microsoft, and Sony (Ecma,
2005). Due to the support of these major players, this new standard is becoming increasingly
stylish. One major supporter of this standard is Adobe Systems. Adobe has implemented U3D
in its latest version of Acrobat 7.0 thus allowing the viewing and transport of 3D objects in a
highly accessible platform. Microsoft has also utilised U3D in its Office suite thus making 3D
objects transportable within Windows applications. Although there is widespread support for
U3D, one must remember that Microsoft is a part of this consortium which sends shivers down
open source advocates spines.

4.4.3.3 Dassault’s 3D XML
Both X3D and U3D have extensive support, yet not all are joining these consortiums. Many
companies will loose if their proprietary standards are not adopted. Millions have been
invested in the development and marketing of these standards which offer similar benefits to
X3D/U3D. Many companies have decided to maintain a proprietary standard intrinsic to their
application. An example of this is Dassault’s proprietary “3D XML” tool for sharing product
information. This tool is a new and “lightweight standard XML-based format that enables
users to capture and share accurate 3D data quickly and easily” (Versprille, 2005). Dassault is
a major manufacturer of engineering software with its successful product CATIA and hope that
adoption of this standard occurs due to its market share in the CADME environment.
The key to Dassault’s 3D XML is its XML implementation which is similar to X3D. “By
using industry standard XML, any
software program will be able to read,
write, and enrich 3D XML content using
standard tools” (Versprille, 2005).
Dassault’s vision is outlined in Figure 28
as “3D for All” originating from its
Product Lifecycle Management tools, or
PLM.
Figure 28. Dassault’s 3D XML for All
(Versprille, 2005)
Although much of Dassault’s 3D XML standard is proprietary due to its sophisticated 3D
graphics compaction algorithm, it is worth the attention as CATIA’s market share is
substantial.

Dassault is also expecting that users of its CATIA toolset will continue to rely on their
software vendor of choice for proprietary visualisation formats due to the tight integration to
their product line.
4.4.3.4 Entertainment Industries COLLADA
Up to this point the majority of standards efforts have been concentrated around the
engineering community. The standard formats being produced via X3D, U3D, or 3D XML are
based on the need to share design diagrams and CADME applications. What about the multi-
billion dollar entertainment industry?
Yet another consortium is COLLADA "COLLAborative Design Activity, is an open standard
for the interactive entertainment industry that defines an XML-based schema for 3D authoring
applications to freely exchange digital assets without loss of information” (Khronos, 2005).
COLLADA was originally funded by Sony Computer Entertainment as a “part of its effort to
revolutionise personal computing with the Cell processor and Sony Playstation 3” (Linux Link,
2005). Sony has now turned this over to the Khronos Group where it will benefit from open
participation practice. Khronos believes that COLLADA has the potential “to enable
extremely powerful digital contact creation…that can automatically condition and scale 3D
geometry and texture assets for real-time playback on a wide diversity of platforms” (Linux
Link, 2005). Supporters for this standard include 3Dlabs, Alias, Aegia, Autodesk, ATI,
Havok, NVIDIA, and Softimage. With this support COLLADA is a formidable standard that
will rival all cross-industry attempts at a universal format.
Of course we don’t want to forget about the medical industry. MedX3D is a new consortium
in the medical field to develop “an open interoperable standard for the representation of human

anatomy based on input from a wide variety of imaging modalities” (Web3D, 2005). As the
MedX3D implies, this consortium is an application of the X3D standard reviewed above, yet
has specific applications within the medical field. It is tightly focused on medical applications
that can benefit from real time visual 3D graphics (Web3D, 2005). Current support is from the
University of Wales, Duke University, Penn State University, and NIST. This limited yet
substantial support leads one to believe that there will undoubtedly be new or evolving
standards in the medical field. As Intel and others have jumped from one standard to the next,
the medical field is expected to follow suit.
4.4.4 Standards Theoretical Differentials
4.4.4.1 Introduction
Based on the above choices for 3D graphics standards, the differences primarily exist between
X3D and associated proprietary choices, versus the new U3D standard supported by Microsoft
and Intel. The theoretical differences exist mainly in the inclusion or exclusion of key aspects
of the technology. U3D “has it roots as a 3D gaming and Web streaming file format” and
therefore is missing key components to make it a viable standard (Grabowski, 2005).
The primary differentials that will be explored here are:
NURBS Curves

Meshes
Quaternions in Euclidean Space
To date these key theoretical features have not been included in the current U3D releases with
no communication from 3DIF as to if or when they will be. The following differentials are
critical to understanding the selection of a standard for 3D graphics.
4.4.4.2 Differential One: NURBS Curves / Surfaces
Surfaces or curves of an arbitrary nature are known as NURBS (Non-uniform Rational B-
Splines). There are multiple advantages to using NURBS as they provide a way to characterise
various shapes “while maintaining mathematical exactness and resolution independence”
(Schneider, 1996). Philip Schneider of Apple Computer continues with the benefits of using
NURBS:
NURBS can represent nearly any shape
NURBS provides precise control of the shape or curve
NURBS can represent extremely complex shapes with very little data
(Schneider, 1996)

NURBS are generalizations of both Bezier and B-Spline curves and surfaces. NURBS can be
represented mathematically as a “non-uniform rational B-Spline surface of degree
defined by
where and are the B-Spline basis functions, Pi,j are control points, and the weight of
Pi,j is the last ordinate of the homogeneous point Pi,j” (Weisstein, 1999). NURBS are
extremely powerful and are available in most standards formats except U3D.
4.4.4.3 Differential Two: Meshes
A mesh is a set of polygons with shared vertices. By sharing vertices, storage space is saved as
well as the ability to handle texture mapping is achieved (Shirley, 2002). Figure 29 provides an
example of a triangular mesh.
Currently a major difference between U3D and the other
standards is the support for meshes with a higher vertices
count than three.
Figure 29. Triangular Mesh with Shared Vertices
Triangular meshes are supported by U3D, yet quads and n-sided polygons are not. This can
reduce the realism and quality of the rendered models. No information was found on whether
this functionality will be integrated into U3D.

4.4.4.4 Differential Three: Quaternion Rotations
U3D currently does not support quaternion rotations whereas X3D and many of the proprietary
standards allow for these rotations. As described in Section 4.3.2.3 Transformation Rotations,
an orthogonal matrix is utilised for 3D rotations. Yet once one encodes a rotation of a 3x3
matrix, finite arithmetic causes numerical drift which in turn can modify an orthonormal
matrix into one that has component abnormalities. This causes the matrices to loose their
orthonormality leading to unwanted variations in the rotation. This can be corrected by
checking to see if the matrices remain orthogonal during the rotation, yet this is
computationally expensive. Quaternions offer a simple way to alleviate this issue. Since
quaternions have 4 degrees of freedom there is only 1 redundant constraint, this is therefore
much easier to enforce than matrix orthogonality. By encoding with quaternion algebra it is
easy to manipulate our rotations in quaternion form (Brown, 2005). Quaternions are any
number of the form a + bi + cj + dk where a, b, c, and d are real numbers, ij = k, i2
= j2
= −1,
and ij = −ji (Brown, 2005). By representing a rotation as a quaternion of four numbers, the
representation is much more compact than that of an orthogonal matrix of 9 numbers.
Quaternion encoding maintains the edge integrity of slowly rotating 3D objects. This quality is
essential in computer games and related applications.
A quaternion to matrix conversion can be achieved by using the scheme of pre-multiplication
of matrices; one such formula for a quaternion q = (w, x, y, z) is:
(Brown, 2005)

By representing a rotation as a quaternion matrix, the calculation to a vector represents a much
simpler and efficient way to rotate an object. As stated above, quaternions are not supported
by U3D which has led to industry frustration.
4.4.5 Standards Adoption Issues
Although there may be little disagreement as to whether or not standards are needed, there is a
great deal of debate as to which proposed standard should be adopted by all. While it appears
that U3D is on the right track, it will face an uphill battle for universal adoption. There have
been many attempts at 3D graphics standardisation; i.e. Microsoft’s Chromeffects, Adobe’s
Atmosphere, and Intel/Macromedia’s combined effort to sponsor Shockwave 3D on the Web.
Each has made valiant efforts in creating a standard for 3D graphics, only to be superseded by
the next sleeker tool. Neil Trevette, Vice President for Nvidia, President of the Web3D
Consortium and developer of X3D, comments that these “failed because of technical reasons in
some cases; because 3D is a market with so many niches that it is difficult for a single
approach to appeal to enough users to succeed; and because the technologies weren’t
controlled by an open standards body” (Geer, 2005). There are no available studies to show
which tool is the most popular, yet one can surmise the use of the formats by the popularity of
their websites. One creative person did this, with the results over the past year presented for
the top five formats. What’s interesting is the continued use of VRML even though it has
“been pronounced dead more times than Apple” (Karmanaut, 2005).

Figure 30. 3D Graphics Standards Comparison
This study confirms the expanding user base of VRML/X3D and demonstrates the fact that
U3D has a long way to go before it is considered a practical option.

4.4.6 Interview Results
There was consensus among interviewees that standards implementation would improve
technology dissemination. All of the participants understood the need and benefits of the
standards, many of them named off the primary benefits of standards, i.e. international
networking, cross industry pollination, advancement of the technology, etc. Interestingly,
three of the participant knew of VRML or X3D which correlates to the findings in Figure 30.
None of the participants knew about the adoption issues or the battle for the adopted
international standard.
Figure 31. Interview Results for Objective Three – Technology Standards
When informed that Microsoft supported U3D, nearly everyone stated in one form or another
that “there must be a catch” (Klimeck, September 2005).

4.5 Objective Four: 3D Graphics Technology Future
4.5.1 Introduction
This section will explore the future of this field and the relevance of the claims that 3D
graphics is potentially a revolutionary technology. Much of the results regarding the future of
this technology were based on the interviews conducted with top industry executives,
technology implementers, and consumers. Each has perspectives as to whether this technology
has changed their lives and whether or not it will continue to do so in the future.
4.5.2 Technological Revolution
“The moment of technology revolution is when a single product dramatically and irreversibly
changes the way people live their lives” (Newman, 2003). 3D graphics to date have affected
human lives in the following primary ways:
Through 3D design and product manufacturing (Defence/Manufacturing)
Through multiple leisure activities (Entertainment)
Through life saving research and training (Medical)

Each of these areas has advanced due to the implementation of 3D graphics. Newman
continues, “Over the past 150 years the light bulb, the locomotive, automobile, airplane,
telephone, television and microprocessor industries have all survived this growth cycle”
(Newman, 2003). In recent years 3D graphics have touched nearly all of these revolutionary
technologies and dramatically changed the way they are manufactured or used.
“Don’t look now, but 3D modeling is all around you. 3D graphics applications…are busy
creating the movies you watch, the games you play, the buildings you work in - - even the
clothes you wear…Hollywood has seen nothing short of a revolution in the last few years”
(Dodson, 2005). Whether this technology is considered revolutionary or is just another
technological advancement is debatable, yet one thing is for sure, this technology is changing
the way we work, live, and relax around the world.
4.5.3 Future 3D Graphics Technology
4.5.3.1 Cell Processor Technology
An exciting area of hardware advancement is that of IBM, Sony and Toshiba’s Cell
technology. This new processor is based on cellular technology and can process in excess of
200 Gflops-- equating to 200 billion floating-point operations per second. This processor has
the ability to work in tandem up to eight processors, which can provide ten simultaneous
instruction sequence processes at once! Intel can only provide two. It is anticipated to ship
with Sony’s PlayStation 3 in 2005, and is now being considered by other major hardware firms
who require extensive graphical computational power. As of October 2005, Mercury
Computers has integrated the Cell processor in its blades. The potential “impact of IBM’s

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