How to write a scientific article Dr: Taher A.Eid

How to Write a
Scientific Article
Dr. Taher A. EidDr. Taher A. Eid
tahereid1@yahoo.comtahereid1@yahoo.com
Orthopedic consultantOrthopedic consultant

Scientific WritingScientific Writing
 The purpose of scientific writing isThe purpose of scientific writing is to communicateto communicate newnew
scientific findingsscientific findings
 SO, it has to beSO, it has to be clear, simple and well orderedclear, simple and well ordered communicationcommunication
to transmitto transmit new scientific findingsnew scientific findings
 Scientific writing must useScientific writing must use proper Englishproper English which gives thewhich gives the
sense in the fewest short wordssense in the fewest short words

A SCIENTIFIC PAPER?A SCIENTIFIC PAPER?
 It is an addition to human knowledge .It is an addition to human knowledge .
 paper should be academic but you’re not
writing for the ages – others will come after
you with newer data and better models. Think
of your role as guiding their future efforts
 being occasionally wrong is forgiven, being
boring is not.

a paper is worth writing only if it has generala paper is worth writing only if it has general
implications for knowledgeimplications for knowledge

IMRAD StoryIMRAD Story
(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion)(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion)
 Early journals publishedEarly journals published descriptivedescriptive papers (stillpapers (still
used in case reports, geological surveys etc..)used in case reports, geological surveys etc..)
 By the second half of the 19By the second half of the 19thth
century,century,
reproducibilityreproducibility ofof experimentsexperiments became abecame a
fundamental principle of the philosophy of science.fundamental principle of the philosophy of science.
 TheThe methods sectionmethods section became all important sincebecame all important since
Louis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of disease,Louis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of disease,
IMRADIMRAD organization of a scientific paper started toorganization of a scientific paper started to
develop ( the latter half of the 19develop ( the latter half of the 19thth
century)century)

IMRAD FormatIMRAD Format
 II == IntroductionIntroduction,, whatwhat question (problem) was studiedquestion (problem) was studied
 MM == MethodsMethods,, how was the problem studiedwas the problem studied
 RR == ResultsResults,, whatwhat are the findingsare the findings
 AA = and= and ???????? (( Abstract-referencesAbstract-references ))
 DD == DiscussionDiscussion,, what do these findings meando these findings mean

A scientific paperA scientific paper characterscharacters
 A scientific paper isA scientific paper is aa written and publishedwritten and published
report describingreport describing original researchoriginal research results.results.
1.1. It must be theIt must be the first publicationfirst publication of originalof original
research results.research results.
2.2. Peers of the author canPeers of the author can repeat therepeat the
experimentsexperiments and test the conclusions, andand test the conclusions, and
3.3. InIn a journala journal oror other sourceother source readily availablereadily available
within the scientific communitywithin the scientific community

Scientific paperScientific paper
-An-An acceptedaccepted,, originaloriginal,, scientificscientific,, publicationpublication
containingcontaining informationinformation toto enableenable peers to:peers to:
1.1. Assess observationsAssess observations
2.2. Repeat experimentsRepeat experiments
3.3. Evaluate academic processesEvaluate academic processes
-Must have an impact-Must have an impact
-Available to scientific community without restriction-Available to scientific community without restriction
-Available for regular screening by one or more of-Available for regular screening by one or more of
the major recognized secondary servicesthe major recognized secondary services
(Biological abstracts, Index Medicus, Pub Med(Biological abstracts, Index Medicus, Pub Med
etc…)etc…)

Language pointsLanguage points
 Poor work cannot be masked by brilliant writing;Poor work cannot be masked by brilliant writing;
however,however, poor writing can mask brilliant workpoor writing can mask brilliant work
soso
 Avoid complexAvoid complex sentencesentence structurestructure
 Use simple and clearUse simple and clear EnglishEnglish
 Always keep in mind thatAlways keep in mind that the paragraphthe paragraph is theis the
essential unit of thoughtessential unit of thought

Before Writing the PaperBefore Writing the Paper
 Record your results ( observations)Record your results ( observations)
 Make tablesMake tables
 Draw graphsDraw graphs
 Keep file to record summaries of results andKeep file to record summaries of results and
any observation however insignificantany observation however insignificant
 Date the filesDate the files
 Revise your readingsRevise your readings
 Write ideas when ever they come to youWrite ideas when ever they come to you

Parts of a Scientific paperParts of a Scientific paper
 TitleTitle: Describe the core contents of the paper: Describe the core contents of the paper
 AbstractAbstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper: Summarize the major elements of the paper
 IntroductionIntroduction: provide background and underlying: provide background and underlying
principle for the studyprinciple for the study
 MaterialsMaterials: Describe the experimental design: Describe the experimental design
 MethodsMethods: Describe the experimental procedures: Describe the experimental procedures
 ResultsResults: Summarize the findings: Summarize the findings without interpretationwithout interpretation
 DiscussionDiscussion: Interpret the findings of the study: Interpret the findings of the study
 SummarySummary: Summarize the findings: Summarize the findings
 AcknowledgementAcknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped: Give credit to those who helped
youyou
 ReferencesReferences: List all scientific papers, books and: List all scientific papers, books and
websites that you citedwebsites that you cited

The TitleThe Title1-41-4
 The title page should contains short,The title page should contains short,
descriptivedescriptive titletitle of the proposedof the proposed
project project ((shouldshould be self-explanatorybe self-explanatory))
and,and,
 authorauthor,, institutioninstitution,, departmentdepartment,,
resreach mentor (supervisor)resreach mentor (supervisor),, mentor'smentor's
institutioninstitution, and, and date of deliverydate of delivery

 The title is the first thing that the reader will see and
this will determine whether they will read further or
not.

 You want to capture their attention, so the title
needs to encapsulate the subject of the article

 A good title is defined as the fewest possible words thatA good title is defined as the fewest possible words that
adequately describeadequately describe the contents of the paper.the contents of the paper.
 The title is extremely important and must be chosenThe title is extremely important and must be chosen
with great care as it will be read by thousands, whereaswith great care as it will be read by thousands, whereas
few will read the entire paperfew will read the entire paper
 Indexing and abstracting of the paper depends on theIndexing and abstracting of the paper depends on the
accuracy of the title. An improperly titled paper will getaccuracy of the title. An improperly titled paper will get
lost and will never be read.lost and will never be read.

 Titles should neither beTitles should neither be too shorttoo short nornor too longtoo long

 Waste wordsWaste words (studies on, investigations on, a, an, the etc)(studies on, investigations on, a, an, the etc)
should not be used.should not be used.
 language ruleslanguage rules must be very carefully consideredmust be very carefully considered
 It should contain theIt should contain the keywordskeywords that reflect the contentsthat reflect the contents
 It should beIt should be meaningfulmeaningful and not generaland not general
 It should beIt should be conciseconcise,, specificspecific andand informativeinformative
 It should capture theIt should capture the fundamental naturefundamental nature of the experimentsof the experiments

ExampleExample
Action of Antibiotics on BacteriaAction of Antibiotics on Bacteria
 ActionAction: should be defined: should be defined
 AntibioticsAntibiotics: should be listed: should be listed
 BacteriaBacteria: should be listed: should be listed

How to Prepare the TitleHow to Prepare the Title
 Make a listMake a list of the most important keywordsof the most important keywords
 ThinkThink of a title that contains these wordsof a title that contains these words
 The title could stateThe title could state the conclusionthe conclusion of the paperof the paper
 The titleThe title nevernever contains abbreviations orcontains abbreviations or
chemical formulas.chemical formulas.
 Think,Think, re-thinkre-think of the title before submitting theof the title before submitting the
paperpaper
 BeBe carefulcareful of the grammatical errorsof the grammatical errors
 AvoidAvoid the use of the wordthe use of the word “using”“using”

The AbstractThe Abstract1-51-5
 The purpose of an abstract.
 Having read your wonderful title, the reader will next
want to know a little more information without
having to wade through a long article to get the
“meat.”

 Although the abstract occurs near the front
of the article, it is actually written last.
 Why?
 Because you need to select and summarize
from the text of your article once it is written.
Abstracts seldom contain references to
other articles.

TheThe AbstractAbstract3-53-5
 ItIt is a summary of the information in a documentis a summary of the information in a document
 It is of fundamental importance that the abstract beIt is of fundamental importance that the abstract be
written clearly and simply, as it is the first andwritten clearly and simply, as it is the first and
sometimes the only part of the manuscript read.sometimes the only part of the manuscript read.
 It should provide a brief summary of each of theIt should provide a brief summary of each of the
main sections (IMRAD) of the paper:main sections (IMRAD) of the paper:
1.1. State the principal objective and scope of theState the principal objective and scope of the
investigationinvestigation
2.2. Describe the methods usedDescribe the methods used
3.3. Summarize the results, andSummarize the results, and
4.4. State the principal conclusionsState the principal conclusions

Criteria ofCriteria of thethe AbstractAbstract4-54-5
 It should not exceedIt should not exceed 250 words250 words
 It should be written inIt should be written in one paragraphone paragraph..
 It should be written in theIt should be written in the past tensepast tense as it refers to workas it refers to work
done.done.
 Long wordsLong words should be followed by itsshould be followed by its abbreviationabbreviation whichwhich
would be used through out the abstract and paper.would be used through out the abstract and paper.
 It shouldIt should not cite any referencesnot cite any references (except in rare cases)(except in rare cases)
 It shouldIt should never givenever give any information or conclusion that is notany information or conclusion that is not
stated in the paperstated in the paper
 Must beMust be accurateaccurate with respect to figures quoted in the mainwith respect to figures quoted in the main
text.text.

Ideal abstract should be written :-
.In one double-spaced paragraph.
.Offset from the rest of the paper.
.Give:
.A skeletal outline of your purpose (one sentence).
.Methods, (one to two sentences).
.Results (one to four sentences).
.Conclusions (one to two sentences).
..Do not cite references in the abstract.

The Introduction1-7
 The Introduction “introduces” the reader to your
subject (why are you writing this article?).
 Arrange the information from general to more
specific.
 Give your reader a historical context so that they
can understand the significance of your article.
 Refer to previous publications (review).

IntroductionIntroduction2-72-7
 Can be written before beginning your work
 In one to several paragraphs.
 Include a statement of purpose, the ideas that led to
your experiment and what you are trying to
demonstrate.

 Should:Should:
 SetsSets the context for your proposed projectthe context for your proposed project
and must capture the reader's interestand must capture the reader's interest
 ExplainExplain the background of your studythe background of your study
starting from a broad picture narrowing in onstarting from a broad picture narrowing in on
your research question.your research question.
 ReviewReview what is known about your researchwhat is known about your research
topic as far as it is relevant to your work.topic as far as it is relevant to your work.
 CiteCite relevant references.relevant references.

TheThe IntroductionIntroduction4-74-7
 The introductionThe introduction should answer the followingshould answer the following
questions:questions:
1.1. WhatWhat was I studying?was I studying?
2.2. WhyWhy this an importantthis an important question?question?
3.3. WhatWhat did I know about this topic before ?did I know about this topic before ?
4.4. WhatWhat model was I testing? andmodel was I testing? and
5.5. WhatWhat approach did I take in this study?approach did I take in this study?

Rules for a goodRules for a good
introductionintroduction5-75-7 (paper):(paper):
 It should present theIt should present the nature and scopenature and scope ofof
the problemthe problem
 Review theReview the relevant literaturesrelevant literatures
 State theState the methodmethod of investigationof investigation
 State the principalState the principal expected resultsexpected results
 State the principalState the principal conclusion(s)conclusion(s)

Two methodsTwo methods
 Time-honored approachTime-honored approach ::
-Begin with a mini-review and finish the intro by saying what your-Begin with a mini-review and finish the intro by saying what your
paper is aboutpaper is about
 More direct approachMore direct approach ::
– First paragraphFirst paragraph :: state in a few words the problem – don’t burdenstate in a few words the problem – don’t burden
with too many refs--with too many refs--
– At end of firstAt end of first paragraph orparagraph or beginning of secondbeginning of second : tell us in one: tell us in one
sentence what your paper is aboutsentence what your paper is about
– SecondSecond andand following paragraphsfollowing paragraphs :: tell us what your paper istell us what your paper is
about, give us the background information, what people have doneabout, give us the background information, what people have done
before, the limitations, etc. (copious referencing)before, the limitations, etc. (copious referencing)
– Last paragraphLast paragraph :: what you’ll do in your paper.what you’ll do in your paper.

StatementStatement
 The end of introduction is the proper place
to state your work (question).
 In a couple of sentences, state your work.In a couple of sentences, state your work.
 This statement can take the formThis statement can take the form of a hypothesis,of a hypothesis,
research question, project statement, orresearch question, project statement, or goalgoal
statement (aim of the work).statement (aim of the work).

Materials andMaterials and MethodsMethods1-51-5
 The purpose of this section is to
enable a reader to duplicate your
experiment and test whether your
results are reproducible.
 Using past tense
 (you are not writing a cookbook).

 This must contain an overall description of yourThis must contain an overall description of your
approach, materials, and procedures.approach, materials, and procedures.
 WhatWhat methods will be used?methods will be used?
 HowHow will data be collected and analyzed?will data be collected and analyzed?
 WhatWhat materials will be used?materials will be used?
 IncludeInclude calculations, technique, procedure,calculations, technique, procedure,
equipment, and calibration graphs.equipment, and calibration graphs.
 DetailsDetails of limitations, assumptions, and range ofof limitations, assumptions, and range of
validityvalidity
 CitationsCitations should be limited to data sources andshould be limited to data sources and
more complete descriptions of procedures.more complete descriptions of procedures.
 Do not include any results and discussion of results.Do not include any results and discussion of results.

 Must identify accurately the materials:- experimentalMust identify accurately the materials:- experimental
animals,, and microorganisms.animals,, and microorganisms.
 The source of subjects studied, number of individuals inThe source of subjects studied, number of individuals in
each group used, their sex, age, and weight must beeach group used, their sex, age, and weight must be
clearly statedclearly stated

MaterialsMaterials4-54-5
 If human subjects are used, the criteria forIf human subjects are used, the criteria for
selection should be described, e consent.selection should be described, e consent.
 For chemicals used, include exact technicalFor chemicals used, include exact technical
specifications and source or method ofspecifications and source or method of
preparation.preparation.
 Avoid the use of trade names of chemicals,Avoid the use of trade names of chemicals,
generic or chemical names are preferred.generic or chemical names are preferred.

MethodsMethods5-55-5
 Must beMust be clearclear,, preciseprecise andand conciseconcise so that it can beso that it can be
reproduciblereproducible..
 If the method isIf the method is newnew,, allall details must be provided.
 If the method has been previously published , only
the reference should be given:
e.g. “cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as
previously described by …”. Preferable than “cells
were broken as previously described by …. “.
 Questions such as “how” or “how much” must be
answered and not left to be puzzled over.
 Methods used for statistical analyses must be
mentioned; ordinary ones without comments, but
advanced or unusual ones require literature citation.

ResultsResults1-71-7
It is written in the past tenseIt is written in the past tense
 It is the core or heart of the work.It is the core or heart of the work.
 It needs to be clearly and simply stated since itIt needs to be clearly and simply stated since it
constitutes the new knowledge contributed to the world.constitutes the new knowledge contributed to the world.
 The purpose is to summarize and illustrate the findings inThe purpose is to summarize and illustrate the findings in
an orderly and logical sequence, without interpretation.an orderly and logical sequence, without interpretation.
 The text should guide the reader through the findings,The text should guide the reader through the findings,
stressing the major points.stressing the major points.
 Do not describe methods that have already beenDo not describe methods that have already been
described in the M&M sectiondescribed in the M&M section

Presenting the dataPresenting the data2-72-7
1.1. Directly in the textDirectly in the text
2.2. In a tableIn a table
3.3. In a figureIn a figure
 All figures and tablesAll figures and tables mustmust be accompaniedbe accompanied
by a textual presentation of the key findingsby a textual presentation of the key findings
 Never have a table or figure that is notNever have a table or figure that is not
mentioned in the textmentioned in the text

Tables andTables and figuresfigures3-73-7
 Your results must be described in one to several
paragraphs.
 Never give long lists of numbers in your text. List such
results in precise tables or in clear figures.
 You must refer to each of your figures and tables
somewhere in the text of your paper. For example:
“Increased reaction temperatures resulted in a higher rate
of reaction (Figure 5)."

A table4-7
 A table consists of neat (efficient) columns of
numbers or words. You should refer to it as "Table
1" (or 2, or 16, etc.) in your text and in its legend,
(aboveabove the table).

A figure5-7
"Pictures say more than a thousand words!“
 Figures serve to illustrate important aspects of the
background material, sample data, and analysis
techniques.
 A photograph, drawing, graph or other illustration is
called a figure. It should be referred to as "Figure 1"
(or 3 or 10, etc.) in your text and in its legend,
(below) the figure.
 Be sure you know how to create figures and tables
correctly before you include them in your paper

N.BN.B6-76-7
 Start by presenting your results (Figure X shows…)Start by presenting your results (Figure X shows…)
and then discuss what they mean.and then discuss what they mean.
 Logical, linear flow of thought is essential – you’veLogical, linear flow of thought is essential – you’ve
thought a lot about your results and what theythought a lot about your results and what they
mean, share this progression with reader.mean, share this progression with reader.
 One theme (idea) per paragraph – first sentenceOne theme (idea) per paragraph – first sentence
lays out the theme, last sentence provides link tolays out the theme, last sentence provides link to
next paragraph. Few paragraphs need to be longernext paragraph. Few paragraphs need to be longer
than ½ page – longer than 1 page is sure sign ofthan ½ page – longer than 1 page is sure sign of
confused thinking.confused thinking.
 The reader expects you to focus on what you canThe reader expects you to focus on what you can
say with confidencesay with confidence..

N.BN.B7-77-7
 Do not change your sacred (holy) data!
 Report exactly what happened in your
experiment, even if it is not what you
expected. You will have ample opportunity
to explain deviations from the expected in
the next section.
 DO NOT INCLUDE ANY DISCUSSION
OR CONCLUSIONS IN THIS
SECTION!!

DiscussionDiscussion writingwriting1-41-4
 It is the hardest section to write.It is the hardest section to write.
 This is the main body of your work and not
merely a re-statement of your results.
 In your discussion, you must analyze and explain
your results.

Guidelines to write a good
discussion2-4
 1. Link your results to your original hypotheses.
 2. Do you accept or reject your null hypotheses? Why or
why not?
 3. Explain your experimental observations in specific terms.
Do NOT make statements such as: "The reaction was
faster because it had a greater reaction rate.
 4. The earth's magnetic poles will not reverse themselves if
your results are not what you expected. If they are not,
then simply try to explain why your data show such
unexpected results. Be logical, imaginative. and--above
all--HONEST.

discussion3-4
 5. Discuss possible sources of error and how they
might have affected your results.
 6. Compare your results to those of similar
experiments published elsewhere.
 7. Draw overall conclusions--give summary
statements.

discussion4-4
 This is your chance to show your amazing capacity for
creative, scientific thought.
 Feel free to refer to published literature on the subject, but
don't be shy about offering your own insights into your
experimental results.
 Be alert. This section is usually worth more than half of the
entire paper's grade. If you do not give detailed, intelligent
explanations for your observations, you have not written a
scientific paper and you will not receive credit for it.
 If your instructor has imposed a page limit, don’t limit the
discussion--cut down somewhere else!

Conclusion/Summary
 This is where you wrap-up your article by either summarizing
the main points (Summary) or by interpreting the significance
of your article (Conclusion).
 The Conclusion is a good place to set your results in a
bigger picture, which might help the reader understand the
significance of your article.
 The Conclusion is also a good place to recommend
future research, perhaps in the form of a suggestion.

Conclusion/Summary
 Regardless of what you include in the
Conclusion, the last sentence should
convey closure so that the reader
recognizes “The End” without you having
to write those words.

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments How?How?
 You should acknowledge:You should acknowledge:
 Someone allowed you to describe a specimen
they owned. Someone make your illustrations,
type the manuscript, or read it for you? Thank
them all.
 Be careful, however, not to get carried away with
fancy language. Rather than write “I would like to
thank
 …”,just do it: “I thank…”

ReferencesReferences
 Referencing is a standardized way of acknowledging the
sources of information and ideas that you have used in
your document.
 A list of ALL the references used in the text must beA list of ALL the references used in the text must be
written.written.
 Reference format :Reference format :
– 1.Harvard format1.Harvard format (the name and year system) is the(the name and year system) is the
most widely usedmost widely used
– 2.Alphabet-Number system is a modification of name
and year system
– 3.Citation order system

In-text citations
1-In name and year system
 When you cite a reference in the text of your work, write
the author's last name and the year of publication in
parentheses immediately after the related information.
 e.g -.. according to Hays (1994);;;;;;;
– ;;population growth is one of the greatest
environmental concerns facing future generations
(Hays, 1994).

- cite double-author references by the surnames of- cite double-author references by the surnames of
both authors (followed by date publication inboth authors (followed by date publication in
parenthesis)parenthesis)
 e.g.e.g. SimpsonSimpson and Hays (1994)and Hays (1994)

– If more than twoIf more than two then the only first author’s name isthen the only first author’s name is
written followed by the abbreviationwritten followed by the abbreviation et al tet al t and then the
date of the publication :
– .e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:
 Pfirman et al. (1994)
 et al="and others." It is used only in the text reference when
there are more than two authors. However, when writing the
reference in you Literature Cited section, you must list every
author's individually, and not use "et al.")
If a single statementIf a single statement requires more than one citation then therequires more than one citation then the
references are arranged chronologically from oldest to morereferences are arranged chronologically from oldest to more
recent, separated by semicolons.recent, separated by semicolons.
 If more than one reference share the same yearIf more than one reference share the same year
then they are arranged alphabetically within thethen they are arranged alphabetically within the
year.year.

ReferencesReferences
2-In alphabet-number system2-In alphabet-number system
 Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged numberedCitation by number from an alphabetically arranged numbered
reference list.reference list.
3-In Citation order system3-In Citation order system
 The references are numbered in the order they are mentionedThe references are numbered in the order they are mentioned
in the textin the text

Reference ListReference List
 Any papers not cited in the text should not be included.Any papers not cited in the text should not be included.
 Reference lists allow readers to investigate the subject inReference lists allow readers to investigate the subject in
greater depth.greater depth.
 A reference list contains only the books, articles, and web
pages etc that are cited in the text of the document.
 A bibliography includes all sources consulted for background
or further reading.

In name and year system:
 The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author. If an
item has no author, it is cited by title, and included in the
alphabetical list using the first significant word of the title.
 If more than one item has the same author, list the items
chronologically, starting with the earliest publication.
 Each reference appears on a new line.
 There is no indentation of the references
 There is no numbering of the references
In alphabet-number system:In alphabet-number system:
It the same as above in addition each reference is given a
number
In Citation order system:In Citation order system:
The reference list is arranged by the number given to the
citation by the order that it were mentioned in the text

 BookBook
      Pechenik, J.A. (1987) A short guide to writing aboutPechenik, J.A. (1987) A short guide to writing about
biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp.biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp.
 Journal ArticleJournal Article
 (with volume numbers)(with volume numbers)
 Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996)Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996)
Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia, Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia, Journal ofJournal of
ResearchResearch, 11, 213-214, 11, 213-214
 Newspaper or MagazineNewspaper or Magazine
 (without volume numbers)(without volume numbers)
 New York Times (1/15/00) PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.New York Times (1/15/00) PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.

 Encyclopedia ArticleEncyclopedia Article
     Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, editorialSturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, editorial
director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish KW, managing ed.director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish KW, managing ed.
The Encyclopedia AmericanaThe Encyclopedia Americana . Vol 24. International ed.. Vol 24. International ed.
Danbury, Conn: GrolierDanbury, Conn: Grolier
  Incorporated; 1995:390-392.  Incorporated; 1995:390-392.

 Book Article or ChapterBook Article or Chapter
 Pitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964) Review of ciliary structurePitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964) Review of ciliary structure
and function. In: and function. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of ProtozoaBiochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa,,
Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-
198.198.
 WebsiteWebsite
 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997)National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997)
Commonly asked questions about ozone.Commonly asked questions about ozone.
http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html,http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html,
9/27/97.9/27/97.
 Journal Article on the InternetJournal Article on the Internet
 McCoy LH.(1999) Respiratory changes in Vulcans duringMcCoy LH.(1999) Respiratory changes in Vulcans during
pon farr.pon farr. J Extr MedJ Extr Med [serial online].47:237-247. Available at:[serial online].47:237-247. Available at:
http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu. Accessed http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu. Accessed
April 7, 1999.April 7, 1999.

about web sites...
 It seems to have become fashionable for students
to cite web sites in their scientific papers.
 Please be alert that this is NOT a generally
accepted practice.
 Many web sites that tempt students with "scientific"
information have not been subject to meticulous
peer-review. They may contain good information,
but they also could be rife with personal opinions,
half-truths, errors and inconsistencies.


 A web site may be up one day, and gone the next.
How reliable do you think such information might
be?
 If you absolutely cannot find information about your
subject anywhere except a web site, then please
ask your instructor whether he is willing to allow you
to cite a web site URL as a reference?.
 In any case, you would be wise to avoid any web
sites with".com" or ".org" designations. Other
domains, such as ".edu" and ".gov" may be more
reliable
 but take everything you read on the www with a
grain of sodium chloride.

about references…about references…
 Be serious about literature search and reading
papers – devote a bit of time to this each day.
 Never refer to a paper for which you haven’t read at
least the relevant part.
 Cite (refer to) papers in a context that makes it clear
what the paper did – otherwise the reference is
useless.
 If you’re not clear, go back and (re-)read the paper
– it is honest thing to do and you may learn
something.

about references…about references…
 Don’t cite textbooks – they may be difficult for reader toDon’t cite textbooks – they may be difficult for reader to
access, information may be buried.access, information may be buried.
 There’s nothing wrong with citing yourself or your groupThere’s nothing wrong with citing yourself or your group
extensively – in fact that’s normal since that’s the work youextensively – in fact that’s normal since that’s the work you
typically build on, and that’s part of advertising. But don’ttypically build on, and that’s part of advertising. But don’t
ignore what others have done!ignore what others have done!
 References should be helpful to the reader, not of historicalReferences should be helpful to the reader, not of historical
interest (unless you’re writing ainterest (unless you’re writing a
reviewreview)---------------------------------------------------)---------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------

A PhD thesisA PhD thesis
 A PhD thesisA PhD thesis is supposed to present theis supposed to present the
candidate’s original research i.e.candidate’s original research i.e. it is a scientificit is a scientific
paperpaper
 Unlike the scientific paper, the thesis may describeUnlike the scientific paper, the thesis may describe
more than one topic, and it may present more thanmore than one topic, and it may present more than
one approach to some topics.one approach to some topics.
 The thesis may present all or most of the dataThe thesis may present all or most of the data
obtained in the student’s thesis related research.obtained in the student’s thesis related research.
 Thus it is more involved and longer than a scientificThus it is more involved and longer than a scientific
paper.paper.
 Think of a thesis asThink of a thesis as a good thrillera good thriller, and write in a, and write in a
logical way so that a reader will find it interestinglogical way so that a reader will find it interesting
and will not be bored.and will not be bored.

How to Write Your ThesisHow to Write Your Thesis

I. Thesis structureI. Thesis structure
II. Crosscutting IssuesII. Crosscutting Issues
III. Editing Your ThesisIII. Editing Your Thesis

II.. Thesis structureThesis structure
 Title PageTitle Page
 Title (including subtitle), author, institution,Title (including subtitle), author, institution,
department, date of delivery, research mentor(s)department, date of delivery, research mentor(s)
and advisor, their instututions and email adressesand advisor, their instututions and email adresses

Thesis structureThesis structure22
 AbstractAbstract
 A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
 Length should be 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.Length should be 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
 Do not have citations.Do not have citations.
 Information in title should not be repeated. Information in title should not be repeated.
 Be clear. Be clear.
 Use numbers where suitable.Use numbers where suitable.
 Answers to these questions in the abstract: Answers to these questions in the abstract:
– What did you do? What did you do?
– Why did you do it? What question were you trying toWhy did you do it? What question were you trying to
answer? answer?
– How did you do it? State methods.How did you do it? State methods.
– What did you learn? State major results. What did you learn? State major results.
– Why does it matter? Point out at least one significantWhy does it matter? Point out at least one significant
implicationimplication

Table of ContentsTable of Contents
 list all headings and subheadings with page numberslist all headings and subheadings with page numbers
 indent subheadingsindent subheadings


List of FiguresList of Figures
 -List page numbers of all figures.-List page numbers of all figures.
-The list should include a short title for each figure but not the-The list should include a short title for each figure but not the
whole caption.whole caption.
List of TablesList of Tables
--List page numbers of all tables.List page numbers of all tables.
-The list should include a short title for each table but not the-The list should include a short title for each table but not the
whole caption. whole caption.

 IntroductionIntroduction
 You can't write a good introductionYou can't write a good introduction until you know what theuntil you know what the
body of the paper says.body of the paper says. Consider writing the introduction afterConsider writing the introduction after
you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.
Be sure to includeBe sure to include a hook at the beginninga hook at the beginning of the introduction.of the introduction.
 (This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to(This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to
motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is anmotivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an
important/interesting scientific problem that your paper solves)important/interesting scientific problem that your paper solves)
 The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previousThe next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous
research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea orresearch in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or
ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the mostideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most
recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explainrecent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain
why more work was necessarywhy more work was necessary (your work, of course.)(your work, of course.)

 What else belongs in the introductory sectionWhat else belongs in the introductory section ((ss))??
 11.The.The goal of the studygoal of the study: why the study was undertaken, or: why the study was undertaken, or why thewhy the
work was written. Do not repeat the abstract.work was written. Do not repeat the abstract.

 2.Sufficient background2.Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understandinformation to allow the reader to understand
the context and significance of the question you are trying tothe context and significance of the question you are trying to
address. address.
 3.Proper acknowledgement3.Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you areof the previous work on which you are
building.building.
 4.The4.The introductionintroduction should be focused onshould be focused on the thesis question.the thesis question. All All
cited work should be directly relevant to the goals of the thesis. cited work should be directly relevant to the goals of the thesis. ThisThis
is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on ais not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a
subject.subject.
 5.Explain the scope5.Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included. of your work, what will and will not be included.

 6.Is it obvious where introductory material6.Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff")("old stuff") ends and yourends and your
contributioncontribution ("new stuff")("new stuff") begins? begins?

MethodsMethods
 What belongs in the "methods" section of ?What belongs in the "methods" section of ?

 1.Information to allow the reader to assess1.Information to allow the reader to assess the believabilitythe believability ofof
your resultsyour results..
 2.Information needed by another researcher2.Information needed by another researcher to replicate yourto replicate your
experiment.experiment.
 3.Description of your3.Description of your materials, procedure, theorymaterials, procedure, theory..
 4.4.CalculationsCalculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and, technique, procedure, equipment, and
calibration plots. calibration plots.
 5.5.LimitationsLimitations, assumptions, and range of validity., assumptions, and range of validity.

 The methods section should answering the followingThe methods section should answering the following
questionsquestions ::
 Could oneCould one accuratelyaccurately replicatereplicate the study?the study?
 Could anotherCould another researcher find and reoccupy the sampling stations?researcher find and reoccupy the sampling stations?
 Is there enough informationIs there enough information provided about any instruments used, so thatprovided about any instruments used, so that
equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
 If the data are in the public domain,If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his handscould another researcher lay his hands
on the identical data set?on the identical data set?
 Could one replicateCould one replicate anyany lablaboratoryoratory analysesanalyses that were used? that were used?
 Could one replicateCould one replicate anyany statistical analysesstatistical analyses??
 Citations in this section should be limited to data sources (completeCitations in this section should be limited to data sources (complete
descriptions of procedures.)descriptions of procedures.)

Do not include descriptions of results.Do not include descriptions of results.

 Results ??Results ??
 1.The results are actual statements of1.The results are actual statements of observations, includingobservations, including
statistics, tables and graphs.statistics, tables and graphs.
 2.Indicate information on range of variation.2.Indicate information on range of variation.
 3.Mention negative results as well as positive.3.Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpretDo not interpret
results - save that for the discussion. results - save that for the discussion.
 4.Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that4.Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that
others can draw their own inferences and construct their ownothers can draw their own inferences and construct their own
explanations. explanations.
 5.Use S.I. units5.Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.)(m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis. throughout the thesis.
 6.Break up your results into6.Break up your results into logical segmentslogical segments by usingby using subheadingssubheadings
 7.Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of7.Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of
paragraphs.paragraphs. It is far better to say "X had significant positive It is far better to say "X had significant positive
relationship with Y, than to start with a less informative like "There isrelationship with Y, than to start with a less informative like "There is
a significant relationship between X and Y". a significant relationship between X and Y".
 Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the readerDescribe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader
whether or not they are significantwhether or not they are significant


Results vs. Discussion SectionsResults vs. Discussion Sections
The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader whichThe writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which
statements are observation and which are interpretation.statements are observation and which are interpretation.
   How do you do this?How do you do this?

 1.Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.1.Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.
 2.Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures. 2.Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.
 3.Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".3.Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
 4.Don't worry if "results" seem short.4.Don't worry if "results" seem short.

 DiscussionDiscussion
 It should be a brief essay in itself, answering the followingIt should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following
10 questions:10 questions:
 11.What are the major patterns in the observations?.What are the major patterns in the observations?
 22.What are the relationships, trends and generalizations.What are the relationships, trends and generalizations
among the results?among the results?
 33.What are the exceptions to these patterns or.What are the exceptions to these patterns or
generalizations?generalizations?
 44.What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these.What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these
patterns resulting predictions?patterns resulting predictions?
 55.Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?.Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
 66.what is the relationship of the present results to the original.what is the relationship of the present results to the original
question?question?

 7.What is the implication of the present results for other
unanswered questions in earth sciences, etc....?
 8.Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible
explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these
rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can
eliminate all but one, that is great.
 9.What are the things we now know that we didn't know
before your work?
 10.What is the significance of the present results: why
should we care?

 This section should be rich in references toThis section should be rich in references to
similar work and background needed to interpretsimilar work and background needed to interpret
results.results.

 Conclusions ???Conclusions ???
 1.What is the strongest and1.What is the strongest and most important speechmost important speech that youthat you
can make from your interpretation?can make from your interpretation?

 2.If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now,2.If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now,
what do you want them to remember about your paper?what do you want them to remember about your paper?

 3.Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions3.Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions
that you reached from carrying out this investigation,that you reached from carrying out this investigation,
summarize new observations, new interpretations, and newsummarize new observations, new interpretations, and new
insights that have resulted from the present work.insights that have resulted from the present work.
 4.Include the broader implications of your results. 4.Include the broader implications of your results.

 RecommendationsRecommendations

Include when indictedInclude when indicted (most of the time)(most of the time)
 1.Curative action to solve the problem.1.Curative action to solve the problem.
 2.Further research to fill in gaps in our2.Further research to fill in gaps in our
understanding. understanding.
 3.Directions for future investigations on this or3.Directions for future investigations on this or
related topicsrelated topics

 Acknowledgments Acknowledgments
 AdvisorAdvisor and anyone who helped you: and anyone who helped you:
 TechnicallyTechnically (including materials, supplies)(including materials, supplies)
 IntellectuallyIntellectually (assistance, advice)(assistance, advice)
 FinanciallyFinancially (for example, departmental support)(for example, departmental support)


 References References
 Cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are notCite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not
your own.your own.
 If you make a statement, back it up with your ownIf you make a statement, back it up with your own
data or a reference.data or a reference.
 All references cited in the text must be listed .All references cited in the text must be listed .

 Appendices Appendices
 Include all your data in the appendix. Include all your data in the appendix.
 Reference data/materials not easily available (theses areReference data/materials not easily available (theses are
used as a resource by the department and other students). used as a resource by the department and other students).
 Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
 Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
 You may include a key article as appendix. You may include a key article as appendix.
 If you consulted a large number of references but did not citeIf you consulted a large number of references but did not cite
all of them.all of them.
 List of equipment used for an experiment or details ofList of equipment used for an experiment or details of
complicated procedures.complicated procedures.
 Note:Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should beFigures and tables, including captions, should be
embedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they areembedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they are
more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.

IIII.. Crosscutting IssuesCrosscutting Issues
 What Are We Looking For?What Are We Looking For?
 We want you toWe want you to
--answer a scientific question--answer a scientific question
-- gather evidence -- from various sources-- gather evidence -- from various sources
-- allow you to make interpretations and-- allow you to make interpretations and
judgments.judgments.
 Your thesis should be clearly written and inYour thesis should be clearly written and in
the format described below.the format described below.

IIII.. Crosscutting IssuesCrosscutting Issues 22
 Planning Ahead for Your ThesisPlanning Ahead for Your Thesis
 1.The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested1.The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested
in.in.
 but also that a faculty member is working on. This person willbut also that a faculty member is working on. This person will
become your research supervisor and this gives you someonebecome your research supervisor and this gives you someone
to talk with and get background material from.to talk with and get background material from.
 2.If you're unsure about the selection of a project, let us know2.If you're unsure about the selection of a project, let us know
and we'll try to help you and connect you with someone.and we'll try to help you and connect you with someone.

IIII.. Crosscutting IssuesCrosscutting Issues33
 Writing for an AudienceWriting for an Audience
 Who is your audience?Who is your audience?

 Researchers working inResearchers working in similar field,similar field, elsewhereelsewhere in the worldin the world
 Researchers working inResearchers working in your fieldyour field , but with, but with differentdifferent
techniques.techniques.
 All otherAll other researchersresearchers using theusing the same techniquesame technique you haveyou have
used . used .
 People writing aPeople writing a mixture papermixture paper on importanton important newnew
developments in your field.developments in your field.
 PotentialPotential reviewersreviewers of your thesisof your thesis committee.committee.

 Order of WritingOrder of Writing
 Write upWrite up a preliminary versiona preliminary version of the background section first. Thisof the background section first. This
will serve as the basis forwill serve as the basis for the introductionthe introduction in your final paper. in your final paper.
 As youAs you collectcollect data,data, writewrite up the methods section.up the methods section.
 When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data.When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data.
These will help you to visualize the data and to see gaps in your dataThese will help you to visualize the data and to see gaps in your data
collection.collection.
 Once you have a complete set of plots and statistical tests, arrangeOnce you have a complete set of plots and statistical tests, arrange
the plots and tables in a logical order.the plots and tables in a logical order.
 WriteWrite figure legendsfigure legends, the legends should stand alone in explaining the, the legends should stand alone in explaining the
figures and tablesfigures and tables..
 Many scientists read only the abstract, figures, figure captions,Many scientists read only the abstract, figures, figure captions,
tables, table captions, and conclusions of a paper.tables, table captions, and conclusions of a paper.
 Be sure that your figures, tables and captions are well labeled andBe sure that your figures, tables and captions are well labeled and
well documented.well documented.

 Once your designs and tables are complete, write the resultsOnce your designs and tables are complete, write the results
sectionsection.. Writing this section requires extreme disciplineWriting this section requires extreme discipline.. YouYou
must describemust describe your resultsyour results, but you must, but you must NOT interpretNOT interpret themthem..
((IfIf good ideasgood ideas occur to you at this time, save them at theoccur to you at this time, save them at the
bottom of the page for thebottom of the page for the discussion sectiondiscussion section.).) .Be honest and.Be honest and
systematic.systematic.
 Once you have written the results section, you can move onOnce you have written the results section, you can move on
to the discussion section. This is usually fun to write, becauseto the discussion section. This is usually fun to write, because
now you can talk about your ideas and data obtained.now you can talk about your ideas and data obtained.

 In writing theIn writing the discussiondiscussion , be sure to adequately discuss the, be sure to adequately discuss the
work of other authorswork of other authors who collected data on the same orwho collected data on the same or
related scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their workrelated scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their work
isis relevantrelevant to your work. If there wereto your work. If there were errorserrors in theirin their
methodology, this is the place to discuss it.methodology, this is the place to discuss it.

 After the discussion , you can writeAfter the discussion , you can write the conclusionsthe conclusions.. In thisIn this
section, you takesection, you take the ideasthe ideas that were mentioned in thethat were mentioned in the
discussion and try to come to some closurediscussion and try to come to some closure.. If someIf some
hypothesis can behypothesis can be ruled outruled out as a result of your work,as a result of your work, say sosay so.. IfIf
more work is neededmore work is needed for a definitive answer,for a definitive answer, say thatsay that..
 The finalThe final section in the paper issection in the paper is a recommendationa recommendation section.section.
This is really the end of the conclusion section in a scientificThis is really the end of the conclusion section in a scientific
paper. Make recommendations forpaper. Make recommendations for further researchfurther research . You will. You will
getget creditcredit from later researchers for this. from later researchers for this.

 You must write your abstract last.You must write your abstract last.

 Figures and TablesFigures and Tables
 The figures and tables should beThe figures and tables should be inserted in the textinserted in the text, generally, generally
on theon the pagepage following thefollowing the pagepage where the figure/table iswhere the figure/table is firstfirst
citedcited in the text.in the text.
 All figures and tables should beAll figures and tables should be numbered and citednumbered and cited
consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2,consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2,
etc. etc.
 IncludeInclude a legenda legend for each figure and table, citing how it wasfor each figure and table, citing how it was
constructed (reference citations, data sources, etc.) andconstructed (reference citations, data sources, etc.) and
highlighting the key findingshighlighting the key findings (think skimming).(think skimming).

 Make yourMake your own figuresown figures,( including cartoons, schematics or,( including cartoons, schematics or
sketches) that illustrate the processes that you discusssketches) that illustrate the processes that you discuss..
 Examine your figures with these questions in mindExamine your figures with these questions in mind::
 Is the figureIs the figure self-explanatoryself-explanatory? ?
 If the data are fit by a curve, indicate theIf the data are fit by a curve, indicate the goodness of fitgoodness of fit..
 Is this a sparse data set that could better be expressed as aIs this a sparse data set that could better be expressed as a
table?table?
 Does theDoes the figure distort the datafigure distort the data in any way?in any way?
 Are the dataAre the data presented in contextpresented in context??
 Does the figureDoes the figure legendlegend guide theguide the reader's eyereader's eye to the "to the "take-take-
home lesson" of the figure?home lesson" of the figure?
 FiguresFigures shouldshould be orientedbe oriented verticallyvertically, in, in portraitportrait mode.mode. If youIf you
must orientmust orient themthem horizontallyhorizontally, in landscape mode,, in landscape mode, orient themorient them
so that you can read them from the right, not from the left.so that you can read them from the right, not from the left.


 Tying the Text to the DataTying the Text to the Data
 "Show them, don't just tell them"Show them, don't just tell them……
 " Ideally," Ideally, every resultevery result in the text shouldin the text should be documentedbe documented withwith
datadata, usually data presented in, usually data presented in tables or figurestables or figures. If there are. If there are
no datano data providedprovided to support a given statement ofto support a given statement of result orresult or
observationobservation, think about, think about additionaddition more data, ormore data, or deletingdeleting thethe
unsupported "observation." unsupported "observation."
-Examine figure or table related to the results. -Examine figure or table related to the results.
-Assess whether: -Assess whether:
 1.the data1.the data supportsupport the textual statementthe textual statement
 2.the data2.the data contradictcontradict the textual statementthe textual statement
 3.the data are3.the data are insufficient to proveinsufficient to prove oror disprovedisprove the textualthe textual
statementstatement

 Final ThesisFinal Thesis
 Make nMake noo ofof final copiesfinal copies: to supervisor and to: to supervisor and to
department, so that we can have 2 types ofdepartment, so that we can have 2 types of
readers. readers.
 Final thesis should beFinal thesis should be boundbound..
 PrintedPrinted cleanlycleanly onon white paperwhite paper. .
 Double-spacedDouble-spaced usingusing 12-point font12-point font. .
 1-inch margins.1-inch margins.
 Double-sided saves paper.Double-sided saves paper.
 IncludeInclude page numbers.page numbers.

IIIIII.. Editing Your ThesisEditing Your Thesis
Copy EditingCopy Editing
 Proof readProof read your thesisyour thesis a few timesa few times..
 Check yourCheck your spellingspelling. spellcheckers are useful for. spellcheckers are useful for
initial checking, but don't catchinitial checking, but don't catch homonymshomonyms (e.g.(e.g.
hear, here), so you need to do the finalhear, here), so you need to do the final check bycheck by
eye.eye.
 Make sure that you useMake sure that you use complete sentencescomplete sentences
 Check yourCheck your grammargrammar: sentence structure, subject-: sentence structure, subject-
verb agreement (plural or singular), etc.verb agreement (plural or singular), etc.
 Give it toGive it to othersothers toto readread andand commentcomment..

IIIIII.. Editing Your ThesisEditing Your Thesis22
 Avoiding hazinessAvoiding haziness
 Do not allowDo not allow extend sentencesextend sentences ..
 Avoid nestedAvoid nested clauses/phrasesclauses/phrases..
 Avoid clauses or phrases withAvoid clauses or phrases with more than two ideasmore than two ideas in them.in them.
 Do notDo not useuse double negativesdouble negatives..
 Do notDo not useuse dangling participlesdangling participles (i.e. phrases with an "-ing"(i.e. phrases with an "-ing"
verb, in sentences where the agent performing the action of the "-verb, in sentences where the agent performing the action of the "-
ing" verb is not specified.ing" verb is not specified.
 Make sure that theMake sure that the precursorprecursor for everyfor every pronounpronoun (it, these, those,(it, these, those,
that, this, one) is crystal clear.that, this, one) is crystal clear. If in doubtIf in doubt, use the, use the nounnoun rather thanrather than
the pronoun.the pronoun.

 Ensure thatEnsure that subjectsubject andand verbverb agree inagree in numbernumber (singular versus(singular versus
plural). plural).
..
 AvoidAvoid qualitative adjectivesqualitative adjectives when describing concepts that arewhen describing concepts that are
quantifiablequantifiable ("The water is deep." Instead, quantify. ("Water depths("The water is deep." Instead, quantify. ("Water depths
exceed 5km.") exceed 5km.")

 Thesis lengthThesis length
 Write for brevity rather than lengthWrite for brevity rather than length.. The goal is the shortestThe goal is the shortest
possible paper that contains all information necessary topossible paper that contains all information necessary to
describe the work and support the interpretationdescribe the work and support the interpretation..
 Some suggestions on how to shorten your paper:Some suggestions on how to shorten your paper:
 1-Use tables1-Use tables for repetitive information. for repetitive information.
 2.Include2.Include only sufficientonly sufficient background materialbackground material to permit theto permit the
reader to understand your story, not every paper ever writtenreader to understand your story, not every paper ever written
on the subject.on the subject.
 3.Use figure3.Use figure captionscaptions effectively.effectively.
 4.Don't describe4.Don't describe thethe contentscontents of the figures and/or tables inof the figures and/or tables in
the text item-by-item.the text item-by-item.

 5.Delete "observations" or "results5.Delete "observations" or "results" that are mentioned in the" that are mentioned in the
text for which you have not shown data.text for which you have not shown data.
 6.Delete "conclusions"6.Delete "conclusions" that are not directly supported by yourthat are not directly supported by your
observations or results.observations or results.
 7.Delete "interpretation" or "discussion7.Delete "interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are" sections that are
inconclusive. inconclusive.
 8.Delete8.Delete "interpretation" or "discussion"interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are only" sections that are only
peripherally related to your new results or observations.peripherally related to your new results or observations.
 9. Avoid unnecessary9. Avoid unnecessary repetitionrepetition

Although it varies from project to project, average thesis length isAlthough it varies from project to project, average thesis length is
aboutabout 40 pages40 pages of ( text + figures +list of references ), but it does notof ( text + figures +list of references ), but it does not
include any appendices.include any appendices.
These generalizations should not be taken too seriously.These generalizations should not be taken too seriously.
If you have any questions about ,If you have any questions about , consult one of your supervisors.consult one of your supervisors.

Ethics, Rights and PermissionsEthics, Rights and Permissions
 Beware of originality and copyrights of others.Beware of originality and copyrights of others.
 Do not copy anything without giving the credit to the owner byDo not copy anything without giving the credit to the owner by
referencing it.referencing it.
 In some cases permissions are neededIn some cases permissions are needed

GrammarGrammar//spellingspelling
 Poor grammar and spellingPoor grammar and spelling distract from the content of thedistract from the content of the
thesis. The reader focuses on the grammar and spellingthesis. The reader focuses on the grammar and spelling
problems and misses keys points made in the text. Modernproblems and misses keys points made in the text. Modern
word programs have grammar and spell checkers. word programs have grammar and spell checkers. Use themUse them..
 Read your proposal aloudRead your proposal aloud - then - have a friend read it aloud.- then - have a friend read it aloud.
If your sentences seem too long, make two or three sentencesIf your sentences seem too long, make two or three sentences
instead of one. instead of one.
 Try to write the same way that you speakTry to write the same way that you speak when you arewhen you are
explaining a concept.explaining a concept.
 You should read ur thesis at least 5 timesYou should read ur thesis at least 5 times before handing it inbefore handing it in
 Simple wording is generally betterSimple wording is generally better,,
so never use a complex word if a simpler word will doso never use a complex word if a simpler word will do

WRITING STYLE
 do your best for logical, linear flow.do your best for logical, linear flow. Put yourself in thePut yourself in the
viewpoint of the readerviewpoint of the reader..
 Be as short as possible. “Be as short as possible. “Every word must hurtEvery word must hurt””
– Pay attention forPay attention for unnecessary wordsunnecessary words and sentences.and sentences.
– UseUse short wordsshort words (e.g., “use” vs. “utilize”)(e.g., “use” vs. “utilize”)
– RemoveRemove value judgmentsvalue judgments: “Surprising”, “interesting”,: “Surprising”, “interesting”,
“unfortunately”“unfortunately” have no place in a scientific paperhave no place in a scientific paper..
……but not all words must be short. Use strong, effectivebut not all words must be short. Use strong, effective
words with precise meaning.words with precise meaning. Build your vocabularyBuild your vocabulary && LoveLove
the English language.the English language.
 UseUse scientific wordsscientific words as much as possible.as much as possible.

N.BN.B
General rules suffer plenty of
exceptions; each paper is a
exclusive situation

My aim is not to tell you how to
write, but my aim is to try to
improve our writing

How to write a scientific article Dr: Taher A.Eid

How to write a scientific article Dr: Taher A.Eid

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