Tioman Lab Report Final

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Tioman Island, Malaysia
Field Research Report
Ramita Kondepudi, Sharlene Martin, Shannon Austin
AP Environmental Science
Ms. Began
Abstract
Without major human impact, ecosystems have high ecological integrity. AP Environmental Science
students journeyed to Tioman Island to conduct research aimed at determining the quality of the island’s
many diverse ecosystems. Although seemingly rural and undeveloped Tioman Island’s villages and
resorts have the potential to annihilate the pristine ecosystems and high biodiversity. Due to the large
tourist attractions including a golf course, airport, ferry, and scuba diving Tioman Island is exposed to
potentially ecosystem degrading activities. Some of the sites surveyed already suffered the human
impacts on the Island including the once pristine coral reefs turned to coral rubble by boats and anchors.
Surveys taken of the tropical rainforest, coral reefs, and coast aimed to evaluate the quality of the water,
soil, and food webs. While Tioman Island’s ecosystem appeared to be minimally affected in relation to
other regions and countries, there was still significant evidence of anthropogenic disturbance in certain
areas. Governments and local people must take action to help protect their pristine environment and
rare, endangered species.

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1. Background/Aim 4
2. Biogeography of Pulau Tioman, Malaysia 6
3. Coral Reef Survey 8
a. Aim 8
b. Materials 8
c. Methods 8
d. Data and Observations 10
e. Results and Analysis 20
4. Coastal Ecosystems Survey 23
a. Aim 23
b. Materials 23
c. Methods 23
5. Beach Profile 29
a. Aim 29
b. Materials 30
c. Method 30
6. Rocky Shore Food Web 34
a. Aim 34
b. Materials 34
c. Methods 35
7. Primary and Secondary Rainforest Surveys 38
a. Aim 38
b. Materials 38
c. Methods 39
8. Soil Quality and Leaf Litter Analysis - Special Focus 45
a. Aim 45
b. Materials 45
c. Methods 46

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9. Fresh Water Stream River Cross Section and River Velocity 58
a. Aim 58
b. Materials 58
c. Methods 58
10. Macroinvertebrates Survey – Freshwater stream biotic index 61
a. Aim 61
b. Materials 62
c. Methods 62
11. Mangroves 67
a. Aim 68
b. Materials and Equipment 68
c. Methods 71
e. Results 72
12. Water Quality Index – Special Focus 73
a. Aim 73
b. Materials 73
c. Methods 75
d. Data, Observations, Analysis 77
13. Biodiversity and Real World Application 81
14. References 82

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Background
The two AP Environmental Science classes went to Pulau Tioman, Malaysia to study how
humans have impacted the island, conducting surveys of the coral reefs, coast, rocky shore, mangroves,
tropical rainforest, and freshwater streams.
Coral Reef Survey:
Purpose: To evaluate the integrity of the coral reef ecosystem off of Tioman Island
Objectives:
 To compare disturbed and pristine coral reef ecosystems
 To take a transect sampling of the ecosystem
 To observe the marine life in the ecosystem
 To determine the human impact on the ecosystem
Calculations:
 Percentage cover:
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
× 100
Coastal Ecosystems Survey:
Purpose: To evaluate the integrity of the coastal ecosystems on Tioman Island
Objectives:
 To compare disturbed and pristine coastal ecosystems
 To count and survey the different organisms living on the coast
 To understand the concepts of population density and frequency
 To learn about different sampling techniques
 To determine the human impact on the ecosystem
Calculations:
 Population Density:
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡
 Species Frequency:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠
× 100
 Local Frequency: more than 50% in a quadrat’s sub square
Beach Profile:
Purpose: To study the morphology of a beach
Objectives:
 To understand that beaches are subject to seasonal fluctuations
 To evaluate the impact of human actions on the profile
 To evaluate the impact of natural waves and tidal influence on the profile
 To learn to use a clinometer effectively
Calculations:
 Change in height: (tan 𝐴) × 𝐵
o Where A is the gradient between intervals (degrees)
o Where B is the length of the interval (meters)

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Rocky Shore Food web:
Purpose: To construct a food web involving all organisms observed on the rocky shore
Objectives:
 To understand the ecological relationships between organisms on the rocky
shore
 To observe certain organisms in their natural habitat
 To observe these organisms’ responses to tide change
 To understand more about the trophic levels involved in a rocky shore food web
Primary and Secondary Forest survey:
Purpose: To survey and evaluate the human impact on primary and secondary forest
survey sites
Objectives:
 To evaluate the maturity of a forest
 To measure the height of trees and diameter of trees
 To apply different sampling techniques to the rainforest
 To appreciate and record the biodiversity of the tropical rainforest
 To learn to use tools specific to surveying, including clinometers and relascopes
Calculations:
 Tree Height: 𝐵(tan 𝐴) − 𝐵 (tan 𝐶)
o Where B is the angle of elevation from eye level
o Where A is the angle of depression from the top of the tree
o Where C is the approximate height of the tree
 Maturity Index:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 outside trees
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
o “Outside” and “Inside” relative to the relascope
 Diameter at Breast Height (DBH):
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜋
Soil Quality and Leaf Litter Analysis
Purpose: To investigate soil quality and its relation to human impact on the ecosystems
it comes from
Objectives:
 To evaluate the human impact on a particular ecosystem
 To understand the functioning of soil testing quality lab equipment
 To understand the multiple organisms that inhabit the forest soil
Fresh Water Stream River Cross-Section and River Velocity
Purpose: To investigate river velocity and the components of the river and its riparian
area

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Objectives:
 To understand the different dimensions of a river
 To evaluate the human intrusion on the freshwater stream ecosystem
 To create a cross-sectional profile of the river
 To learn how to calculate the wetted perimeter of the river
Macroinvertebrates survey
Purpose: To investigate the macroinvertebrates living in the river and thus infer the
quality of the river
Objectives:
 To understand the importance of macroinvertebrates to a freshwater stream
ecosystem
 To recognize the importance of water quality of the stream
 To understand the impact that riparian areas have on the stream
Mangroves
Purpose: To investigate the water and soil quality of a local mangrove, as well as
understand the human impact on the ecosystem
Objectives:
 To understand the importance of the mangroves as a whole ecosystem
 To evaluate the vulnerability of the mangroves to human intrusion
 To further apply water and soil quality measuring techniques
 To see the components of a mangrove tree, such as its knobby roots, live
Water Quality Index Testing
Purpose: To investigate the water quality from a number of ecosystems and thus
understand the human impact on the environment
Objectives:
 To understand the fragile balance of water quality in relation to the
physicochemical parameters
 To understand the impact of poor water quality on organisms
 To calculate a final water quality index value
Hands-on experiences, the field studies conducted on Tioman Island emphasized the important
ecological roles of ecosystems and emphasized human impact on the environment. Data recorded and
analysis of results will be discussed later in this report.
Biogeography of Pulau Tioman, Malaysia
32 km off the coast of Malaysia, in the South China Sea, lies Tioman Island. Located near the
Equator, at coordinate points 2o 49’ N 140o 11E, Tioman has a tropical rainforest climate. The climate is
extremely hot and humid all year round with no winter or summer. Monsoon Season is between the

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Visual 2 This is the layout of Tioman Island which shows the
different sites all around
months of November and February. With the humidity at 89-92%, warm air, and heavy precipitation,
Tioman Island can support high levels of biodiversity in its many different ecosystems.
Visual 1 This is a climatogram for Malaysia, depicting average temperature and rainfall per month.

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Tioman Island contains many types of ecosystems. The primary forest in Tioman had tall, wide, spaced
out trees, and a high canopy. In contrast, the secondary forest had slender, closely spaced, young and
old trees, while there was no set canopy due to the different maturities of the trees. Yet, they both had
many differences, they were found within relatively close proximity on Tioman Island. Similar to the
rainforests the prominent differences between the undisturbed and disturbed ecosystems included
bleached coral reefs, broken coral pieces, and less biodiversity in the disturbed areas. The coastal
mangroves were covered in trash from the local villages that continually dump their wastes into the
oceans or burn them. The trees looked to be in good condition and were held firmly in the ground by
their roots. The eight main villages have a small population of 432 people, resulting in a minimum
impact on the environment.
Coral Reef Survey
Aim
“Photo Transects” were conducted to evaluate the quality of a coral reef ecosystem, using
percentage cover as the basis of comparison between pristine and damaged coral reefs. The photos
acted as quadrats, from which students retrospectively sampled after the photo was taken. Swimming
strokes and direction were standardized, providing a means of systematic sampling that prevented bias
in data collection.
Materials
The following materials were used in conducting the coral reef survey:
 1 underwater camera
 Snorkeling material
Methods
Pictures of the survey site were taken, and the photo number and name of the survey site were
recorded. A point in the distance was chosen to maintain constant direction as the swimming began.
A photo with an open palm was taken, indicating the beginning of a transect. Every two breast
strokes, another photo was taken. It was ensured that a constant distance above the reef was
maintained throughout the transect; this was done by following the reef crest. At the end of the
transect, a photo of a closed fist was taken.
Finally, after the transect was finished, the photos were divided into subsections, each analyzed to
estimate the percentage cover or frequency as necessary.

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Visual 3 The beginning of the transect photos symbolized by the open hand
Visual 4 The end of the transect photos symbolized by the closed fist

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Data and Observations
Undisturbed Coral Reef
Visual 5 Transect photo, undisturbed coral reef #1: 30% coverage of coral

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Visual 14 Transect photo, undisturbed coral reef #10:85 % coverage of coral
Disturbed Coral Reefs
Visual 15 Transect photo, disturbed coral reef #1: 15% coverage of coral

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17

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Transect photo Percentage coverage
1 30
2 40
3 45
4 30
5 30
6 20
7 90
8 70
9 80
10 85
Average 52
Percent coverage of live corals at undisturbed reefs
Results and Analysis

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Transect photo Percentage coverage
1 15
2 5
3 5
4 15
5 30
6 5
7 5
8 0
9 15
10 5
Average 10
Percent coverage of live corals at disturbed reefs
Visual 25 Tables and graphs summarizing the results of the coral reef survey

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According to the data the undisturbed coral reef looks to be in fair conditions, aside from the
white edges on the purple- red tabletop coral. The white edges is a sign of the corals bleaching, this
could be a result of high levels of salt in the water, temperatures outside of the tolerance zone, or even
sunscreen from tourists. Although, exact data couldn’t be collected about the coral reef the photos do
show us the integrity of the coral reef.
The disturbed coral reef transects show how humans have destroyed the coral. Humans harm
the reefs by, stepping on the coral, dumping garbage and harmful chemicals into the ocean, and
mooring boats can break the coral if not done properly. However, since Tioman Island rely on tourism to
make profits anchoring buoys have been installed to prevent damage to the coral reefs. These
anchoring buoys consist of a cinder block or something stuck to the sea floor with a rope and buoy
attached, when the boats need to moor they attach to the line connected to the weight. Thus
preventing more damage done to the reef.
Visual 26 This photo shows an anchor against the reef, and its chain is over the reef--it will drag back and forth, damaging the
coral. This anchor is from a small kayak...imagining what the anchor of a larger boat might do!
Visual 27 This is the proper way to anchor a boat.

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Coastal Ecosystems Survey
Aim
Organisms living in different zones in the intertidal area have adapted to live under varying
environmental conditions. As abiotic conditions vary across the zones, the distribution and size of
species also vary.
Materials
The following materials were used in conducting the coastal ecosystems survey:
 Two 50m tape measures
 One 0.5m X 0.5m quadrat square
Visual 28 The materials used to conduct the coastal ecosystems survey - a quadrat and tape measure
Methods
At the survey site, a habitat observation and human impact assessment was conducted. The
beach profile length was measured and a 50 meter transect line, with the 0 meter mark at the high tide
area, was laid, towards the sea. The total length of the transect was divided into regular intervals, 5
meters in this case, to form an interrupted belt transect.
At each quadrat, the substrate was recorded, forming the Point Intercept Transect method.
Substrates found included coral rubble, turf algae, rock, or sand, abbreviated as CR, TA, RK, and SD
respectively. The quadrat square was placed at the bottom left hand corner of the interval point and
within it, the population density of sea cucumbers, percentage cover of padina, and the local frequency
of sponge were measured and recorded.

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Visual 29 An example of padina found in the quadrat square. The percentage cover of the padina was determined by looking at
each small square of the quadrat. If the padina covered at least 50% of the small square then the square was counted in the
overall percentage
Visual 30 The transect line used to conduct the survey

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Point
Point Intercept
Transect
Density of sea
cucumber
(square meters)
Percentage cover of
padina (%)
Local frequency of
sponge (number per
square meter)
44,21 TA/CR 0 0 0
49,49 SD/CR 0 4 0
29,39 SD/CR 0 1 0
44,30 SD/CR 0 0 0
48,49 CR/SD 1 7 0
6,17 CR/SD 0 0 0
34,32 CR/SD 0 7 0
29,16 SD/CR/TA 0 0 0
8,31 CR/SD 0 0 0
25,27 CR/SD 0 11 0
Pristine Coastal Environment - Random Sampling 1
Point
Point Intercept
Transect
Density of sea
cucumber
(square meters)
Percentage cover of
padina (%)
Local frequency of
sponge (number per
square meter)
45,04 SD 0 0 0
27,17 RK 0 0 0
36,14 RK 0 0 0
49,45 CR 0 0 0
22,15 TA 0 0 0
39,45 CR 0 0 0
03,43 TA 0 1 0
21,47 CR 0 1 0
45,26 CR 0 2 0
22,37 CR 0 3 0
Pristine Coastal Environment - Random Sampling 2

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Interval Point Intercept Transect
Density of sea cucumber
(square meters)
Percentage cover of
padina (%)
Local frequency of
sponge (number per
square meter)
0 SD 0 0 0
5 SD 0 0 0
10 CR /SD 0 0 0
15 TA/SD 0 0 0
20 SD 0 0 0
25 RK/TA/SD 0 0 0
30 Other (Hermit crab)/SD/RK/TA 0 1 0
35 SD 0 0 0
40 SD/RK 0 4 0
45 SD/RK 0 2 0
50 SD 0 1 0
55 SD/RK 0 0 0
60 RK/TA 0 2 0
65 SD 0 0 0
70 SD 0 4 0
75 SD 0 2 0
80 SD 0 0 0
85 SD 0 2 0
90 SD 0 5 0
95 SD 0 2 0
100 SD 0 6 0
Disturbed Coastal Environment - Transect 1
Interval Point Intercept Transect
(square meters)
Percentage cover of
padina (%)
Local frequency of
sponge (number per
square meter)
0 SD 0 0 0
5 SD 0 0 0
10 SD 0 0 0
15 RK 0 0 0
20 RK 0 0 0
25 RK 0 0 0
30 RK 0 0 0
35 SD 0 0 0
40 RK 0 0 0
45 RK 0 0 0
50 RK 0 1 0
55 CR 0 0 0
60 RK 0 0 0
65 SD 0 0 0
70 RK 0 1 0
75 RK 0 2 0
80 SD 0 1 0
85 SD 0 6 0
90 CR 0 2 0
95 RK 0 10 0
100 RK 0 18 0
Disturbed Coastal Environment - Transect 2

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Key to Point Intercept Transect:
 TA: Turf Algae
 CR: Coral Rubble
 SD: Sand
 RK: Rock
Visual 31 The coral rubble found on the disturbed coast. The rubble is bits and pieces of dead coral and signifies poor
health of the coral reefs.
Visual 32 Sea cucumbers found in the coastal ecosystem

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0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
(square meters)
Percentage cover of padina
(%)
Local frequency of sponge
(number per square meter
Average Random Sampling Findings of the
Pristine Coastal Environment
Visual 33 Graphic summaries of the Point Intercept Transect findings on the Coast

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The coastal ecosystems were found to be in reasonable condition. In the pristine environment,
majority of the substrate that was surveyed was coral reef rubble, as oppose to the sand prevalent in
the disturbed coastal section. The coral reef rubble may be the result of damaged coral washing up on
shore during high tide, broken due to ship anchoring and recreational activities far out into the sea.
Very little sea cucumbers were encountered, despite the high numbers present. The high
density populations did not fall within the transects, therefore influencing the final coastal survey’s
results. Padina was found numerous times, but no sponge was counted on both the disturbed and
pristine coast.
Human activity was evident on the disturbed coast. More sand implied that the area was used
more for recreational, tourist purposes, especially since it was on the property of Melina Beach Resort.
This may have impacted the numbers of organisms present on the coast.
Tioman Island’s government must ensure that development for human purposes does not
degrade the coastal environment, protecting the organisms that depend on the coast for survival.
Beach Profile
Aim
Measuring beach profiles allowed students to survey the morphology of a beach. Over long
periods of time in other studies, beach profiles have proved useful for measuring seasonal fluctuations
of beach species as well as the comparison of beaches in different locations.
(In background info or here?) Any coast is continually changing due to wave and tidal influences.
The power of waves is a significant force that influences beach profile. The size and energy of a wave is
dictated by the strength and duration of the wind that created them, and by the wave fetch (how far the
wave has traveled).
Waves can be categorized as either destructive (storm waves that tend to erode the coast) or
constructive (calmer waves which tend to deposit material and therefore build up beaches). Longshore
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
density of sea cucumber
(square meters)
Percentage cover of padina
(%)
Local frequency of sponge
(number per square meter
Average Transect Findings of the Disturbed
Coastal Environment
Visual 34 Graphic representations of the transect results on the coast

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drift can occur where waves approach the coast at an angle, transporting material by human influence it
can create splits, barriers and tidal inlets.
Materials
The following materials were used to conduct the beach profile:
 1 clinometer
 2 marked poles (preferably the same height)
 Beach
 Measuring tape
Visual 35 An example of a clinometer used while surveying
Method
To begin, the measuring tape, starting from the high tide mark on the high shore, was rolled out
towards the sea. The strip of beach being measured was divided into short, regular intervals. At both
ends of the tape, long, vertical poles were placed and the person nearest to the low tide held the
clinometer at the 1.4 meter mark. The angle of the clinometer was adjusted until it was directly focused
on the 1.4 meter mark and the displayed value was recorded. This was repeated all the way throughout
the beach to evaluate the entire profile of the beach. Differences in height between the two poles were
then calculated.

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Visual 36 The results of the beach slope conducted by group A
A Degree B (m)
Change in
height (m)
5 1 0.09
3 1 0.05
1 1 0.02
3 1 0.05
3 1 0.05
4 1 0.07
5 1 0.09
9 1 0.16
8 1 0.14
10 1 0.18
5 1 0.09
6 1 0.11
8 1 0.14
8 1 0.14
10 1 0.18
11 1 0.19
8 1 0.14
9 1 0.16
5 1 0.09
7 1 0.12
Disturbed Beach Slope A

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Visual 37 Graphic demonstrations of the beach slope results for group A
Visual 38 The results of the beach slope conducted by group B
A Degree B (m)
Change in
height (m)
3 1 0.05
13 1 0.23
10 1 0.18
9 1 0.16
6 1 0.11
4 1 0.07
5 1 0.09
9 1 0.16
2 1 0.03
1 1 0.02
4 1 0.07
7 1 0.12
6.5 1 0.114
6 1 0.11
11 1 0.19
9 1 0.16
8 1 0.14
9 1 0.16
9 1 0.16
7.5 1 0.13
Undisturbed Beach Slope B

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Visual 39 Graphic representations of the beach profile results of group B

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Visual 40 Where the beach profile was conducted
Based on the data groups A1and A2, collected on the disturbed site and the data from groups B3
and B4 on the undisturbed site have collected we have realized that the undisturbed beach has a fairly
random slope. For example in Data Table 3 and Data Table 4 between the beginning our tape measurer
to 18 meters, the change in height of the beach floor fluctuates randomly. An example of this would be
in Data Table 2 at 2 meters the degree of the slope of the beach is at 3 degrees, at 3 meters the degree
of the slope of the beach is at 1 degree, at 4 meters the degree of the slope of the beach is at 3 degrees.
This experiment has its issues since how compact the soil is, can change the degree of the reading,
because the poles can go in deeper with less compact soils than less compact soils.
Rocky Shore Food Web
Aim
To explore the ecological relationships between organisms living on the rocky shore, a food web
was constructed. The results were then analyzed to evaluate the sustainability of the community’s
energy transfer system, in relation to the different trophic levels present and possible human intrusion.
Materials
The following materials were used in observing the organisms that play a role in the rocky shore
food web as well as creating the food web:
 Notebook
 Mapping software – Bubbl.us

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Visual 41 The rocky shore where the survey was
conducted
Methods
Each organism seen on the rocky shore while taking the coastal survey was recorded carefully in
a notebook. After researching the ecological role and dietary habits of each of the organisms observed,
a food web was created using an online mapping software.
The following is a list of organisms observed on the rocky shore:
 Nudibranch
 Clam
 Algae
 Feather Duster Worm
 Christmas Tree Worm
 Sponges
 Goby shrimp
 Starfish
 Sea Urchin
 Sea Cucumbers
 Sea anemone
 Ghost crabs
 Padina
 Phytoplankton
 Humans
Visual 42 A sea cucumber observed on the rocky shore

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Visual 43 Padina found growing on a rock at Melina Beach
Visual 44 A crab, one of the many organisms found on Melina Beach
Visual 45 A giant clam found on Melina Beach

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The following key was used while constructing the food web according to trophic level:
 Arrows: energy transfer
 Yellow: sunlight
 Green: primary producers
 Orange: primary consumers
 Purple: secondary consumers
 Maroon: tertiary consumers
 Blue: detrivores
 Black: quaternary consumers
The multiple trophic levels and complex relationship each organism has with the others are
indicative of a healthy, highly biodiverse rocky shore ecosystem. Of the total twenty organisms observed
and used in the construction of this food web, four were primary producers, six were primary
consumers, six secondary consumers, one tertiary and quaternary consumer, as well as one detrivore.
Visual 46 A constructed food web of all the organisms observed on the rocky shore, organized in terms of trophic level

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The different organisms found on the rocky shore, however, may not be limited to those highlighted
here. Select areas of the shore were surveyed and therefore organisms only in these areas were
recorded, leaving room for many other organisms that are not a part of this food web to take part in the
ecological relationships. Given this data and food web, the high percentages of consumers as opposed
to the relatively few primary producers may be a cause for concern. If over consumption of primary
producers occurs or competition between consumers is very severe, leaving little for the primary
consumers to feed on, the whole food web may collapse. Human intrusion may be attributed to
significantly low numbers of producers, as humans may have picked them out or developments may
have blocked sunlight or inhibited other environmental conditions allowing other primary producers to
live. The human consumption of detrivores such as sea cucumbers may also destabilize the food web,
preventing nutrients from being recycled rapidly, thus inhibiting the growth of primary producers. The
sustainability of the food web may be at risk due to the high percentage of consumers present.
Primary and Secondary Rainforest Surveys
Aim
Surveys of the primary and secondary rainforest were conducted to evaluate the integrity of the
ecosystem. The sizes of tree trunks and height, along with maturity, seedling and sapling count, a
reading of light intensity, and canopy closure were accounted for in the analysis of the integrity of the
primary and secondary rainforest.
Materials
The following equipment was needed to conduct the rainforest surveys:
 Calipers
 Measuring tape
 Clinometer
 Transect line
 Relascope
 Notebook
Visual 47 A relascope being used to determine the maturity index of the trees in the primary forest

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Methods
Maturity: To conduct the maturity of the trees a relascope was held at eye level and one person
would spin around slowly in a small circle 360 degrees, counting every single tree and determining if it
was in between the two lines or outside the lines. Another person made tally marks whither the tree
was inside or outside the lines. The maturity index of the trees was determined by dividing the number
of trees outside the lines by the number of trees inside the lines.
Visual 48 A demonstration of what the trees would look like inside versus outside of the lines
Tree Height: The tree height was conducted by using a clinometer to record the angle to the top
of the tree and to the bottom. A person would stand 10 meters away from the tree and point the
clinometer at the top of the tree. The trigger would be released and when the disk stops moving release
the trigger and record the angle to the top of the tree. Repeat to the base of the tree and record the
angle to the bottom of the tree. Use basic trigonometry to determine the height of the tree.
The formula used to determine the height of the tree.
Tree height= (distance from the tree)(tan angle to the top of the tree)- (distance from the
tree)(tan angle to the base of the tree)
Diameter: To determine the diameter of the trees, a diameter tape at 1.3 meters above was
held and wrapped around the tree.
Seedling and Sapling Counts: A 5 meter by 5 meter quadrat was laid out using strings and stakes.
Lay out a quadrat that is 5m by 5m using string and sticks. Count the number of seedling and saplings
within the quadrat. A seedling is less than 1 meter high and saplings are between 1 and 6 meters high.
Record how many are of each are in the quadrat.
Light Intensity: The light meter was turned on, the cap was removed from the light sensor. After
standing in the center of the quadrat, eyes were closed and the person in the middle counted to five.
The first number seen when the eyes were again opened was recorded; this was repeated at each
corner of the quadrat.
Canopy Closure: The camera was squarely pointed upwards towards the canopy and a picture
was taken. This was done in the center and at each corner of the quadrat.

40
Visual 49 The transect line being laid out in the secondary forest
Visual 50 Measuring the diameter of a tree with the diameter tape

41
Tree # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Angle A 44 56 26 60 60 37 35 72 55 40
B(distance from tree) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Angle C -13 -9 -4 -8 -13 -12 -10 -15 -11 -12
Tree Height 11.97 16.41 5.58 18.73 19.63 9.66 8.77 33.46 16.23 10.52
Diameter(cm) 8.89 30.48 9.398 43.688 7.62 8.89 10.16 64.77 12.7 4.6
Circumference (feet) 11 37.7 11.62 54.04 9.42 11 12.57 80.11 15.71 14.45
Tree HeightandDiameterforPrimaryForest
Team Light Intensity (lux)
Maturity Index: Young
(numbers of trees)
Maturity Index: Mature
(numbers of trees)
A1 231.24 50 50
A2 133.5 40 20
B3 385.4 81% 19
B4 678.2 45 55
Average Light Intensity and Maturity in Primary Forest

42
Visual 51 The canopy cover in the primary forest
Tree # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Angle A 30 40 47 36 50 49 34 44 47 28
Angle B 10 10 10 10 7 9 5 5 10 10
Angle C -11 -15 -8 -7 -17 -11 -16 -12 -14 -10
Tree Height (m) 7.72 11.07 12.13 19.54 10.48 12.1 4.81 5.89 13.22 7.08
Diameter(cm) 2.86 5.65 6.57 1.87 5.65 11.23 2.79 11.46 32.05 27.04
Circumference (cm) 0.75 1.48 1.72 0.49 1.48 2.94 0.73 3 8.39 7.08
Tree Heightand DiameterforSecondary Forest
Team Light Intensity (lux)
Maturity Index: Young
(numbers of trees)
Maturity Index: Mature
(numbers of trees)
A1 283.12 93 7
A2 222.24 20 18
B3 50.6 56 44
B4 201.2 63 36
Average Light Intensity and Maturity in Secondary Forest

43
Visual 52 The canopy cover in the secondary forest
Visual 53 A pill bug found on the hike to the primary and secondary forest
Visual 54 A caterpillar found in the forest

44
Visual 55 A rare Trilobite beetle
Visual 56 A mature tree in the primary rainforest
Visual 57 A monitor lizard found on a popular beach where we had lunch

45
The purpose of the rainforest survey was to determine the integrity of the ecosystem. According
to the overwhelming data, the main differences between the primary and secondary rainforests shows
that the trees in the primary forest are both taller and thicker than the trees in the secondary rainforest.
Indicating that the secondary forest had once been cut possibly for palm oil plantations. Consequently
to groups A1 and A2, the light intensity for the secondary forest is lower than the primary forest for
groups B3 and B4. This could be affected by the cloud cover during the period that the groups took their
data since the data was taken at different time periods. Many of these sampling techniques are not very
precise and this could lead to error. However, most of the data does correspond to theory, with the tree
height, maturity, and diameter all being greater in the primary forest.
Soil Quality and Leaf Litter Analysis - Special Focus
Aim
The aim of the soil quality data analysis was to determine the quality of the different rainforests and
compare the secondary and primary rainforests. This was achieved by qualitatively and quantitatively
sampling the two different forests. The tests included the ribbon test, moisture, organic matter,
percolation rate, porosity, percent composition, texture, pH, phosphate, nitrate, potassium, leaf litter
organisms, and humus. With these tests, the quality of the soil in primary and secondary forests was
ascertained.
Materials
Soil
 Soil testing kit
 Nitrate testing kit
 Phosphate testing kit
 Potassium testing kit
 pH testing kit
 Humus
 100 mL graduated cylinder
 250mL beaker
 Drying oven
 Ring stand and burner
 Filter paper
 Ethanol
 Heat lamp
 Burlese funnel
 Hand lens
 Aluminum foil
 Porcelain crucible
 Ruler
 Hot plate
 Weighing scale

46
Other materials and equipment
 Light intensity probe
 Thermometers
Methods
Soil testing: A large sample of soil from the mangroves was collected and any stones, roots,
grass, or thatch were removed. Ambient temperature, light intensity, humidity, and images of the
vicinity were recorded.
General observations, including any remaining organic matter – worms, insects, plant roots –
were recorded before testing occurred.
Visual 58 A soil sample being collected using a soil corer
Soil texture: Soil texture was evaluated qualitatively by taking a small, moist wad of soil and
rubbing it against the thumb and forefinger. Gritty texture suggested a soil sample mainly constituted of
sand, sticky implied clay, and neither sticky nor gritty was found to be silt. Long, unbroken ribbons of soil
were made; if these stayed holding, it was confirmed that the sample was clay. Short ribbons were
found to be silt or loam and no ribbons being able to be formed suggested sand or sandy loam. Pouring
a certain volume of soil into a 100 mL empty graduated cylinder performed quantitative soil testing.
Water was added until the meniscus reached the 100 mL mark and the waterlogged sample was shaken
several times. Left alone for over 24 hours to settle, the soil sample’s different colored sections were
measured. Particles on the bottom were measured to be large and dense, hence sand, while in the
middle, silt was settled, and on the top, the fine clay particles were found. The percentage of silt, sand,
and clay was measured of the sample and applied to a soil triangle to understand the type of soil. Using
a soil testing kit, pH, phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and humus levels were ascertained from the
physical sample.

47
Visual 59 A soil triangle used to determine the classification based on the percentage of sand, silt, and clay
Visual 60 Nitrogen testing kit for soil

48
Soil moisture: Soil moisture was found by taking a series of steps to measure the amount of
water in the sample. A small aluminum foil tray was formed and a small scoop of soil was placed onto it;
masses were recorded before and after the soil was added. Over 24 hours, the soil sample was placed in
a drying oven at a temperature of 90 to 95 degrees Celsius and at the end, the final mass was recorded
again. The percentage of mass lost was found to be the soil moisture quantity.
Percent Organic Matter: A cleaned, dry crucible was obtained and massed. It was filled with ¾ of
soil and placed in a drying oven of 90 to 95 degrees Celsius to evaporate any water. Once this is finished,
the final mass of the crucible and soil was recorded. The crucible was then placed on a ring stand in a
fume hood, using an iron ring and pipe-stem triangle, and heated for 30 minutes. The mass of the
crucible and soil was measured again.
Soil porosity: To determine soil porosity, a 250 mL beaker was filled with dried soil to the 200 mL
mark. Then a 100 mL graduated cylinder was filled to the 100 mL mark with water and the water was
poured onto the surface of the soil until it became completely saturated. As water began to pool on the
surface, the amount of water used was found to be the amount of pore space in the sample of soil.
Soil dry percolation rate: To measure how fast water flowed through the dry soil, a small piece
of filter paper was first placed in the neck of a 16-oz water bottle. This funneled section was set into the
bottom part of the water bottle so that water draining through was collected. These steps were
repeated for each sample of sand, clay, and soil. The percolation rate was recorded in cubic centimeters
of water per surface area of sample per second. This was done by calculating the cross-sectional area of
the funnel, pouring water onto the surface of each sample and recording the time it took for the water
to hit the surface of the bottom. The final water volume and elapsed time was recorded.
Counting macroinvertebrates: The top of a 2 liter clear soda bottle was cut 2 to 3 cm below
where the sides become parallel. 20 to 25 mL of ethanol was placed in the bottom part of the bottle,
while the funnel was placed on top. A section of wired mesh was placed in the neck of the funnel, then
filled with soil and humus sample about 2 cm from the rim. A heat lamp about 10 cm away from the
surface of the soil was placed to speed up the drying and help drive organisms to the bottom of the
funnel. The organisms fell into the ethanol in preparation to be identified and counted.
Visual 61 pH testing kit for soil

49
Visual 62 A Burlese funnel with the light at top
and ethanol- water mixture to petrify the
organisms when they fall into the beaker
Visual 63 Leaf litter in the secondary forest

50
Site
Gritty
(sand)
Sticky
(clay)
Neither
(silt)
Primary
Rainforest A1 No No Yes
Primary
Primary
Rainforest B3 No Trace Trace
Primary
Rainforest B4 No No Yes
Secondary
Rainforest A1 No Trace Trace
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Rainforest A4 No Trace Trace
Mangrove A1 Yes No Trace
Mangrove A2 Yes No No
Mangrove B3 Yes No No
Mangrove B4 Yes No No
Melina Beach
Clay Sample A1 Trace No Trace
Melina Beach
Clay Sample A2 No Yes Trace
Melina Beach
Clay Sample A3 Yes Yes No
Melina Beach
Clay Sample A4 No Yes No
Qualitative Soil Texture
Visual 65 A summary of results from the qualitative soil tests
% Mass Loss
Primary Rainforest A1 2.56%
Primary Rainforest A2 3.33%
Primary Rainforest B3 1.79%
Primary Rainforest B4 no data
Secondary Rainforest A1 0.02%
Secondary Rainforest A4 no data
Mangrove A1 0.06%
Mangrove A2 8.12%
Mangrove B3 1.52%
Mangrove B4 no data
Melina Beach Clay Sample A1 0%
Melina Beach Clay Sample A2 2.56%
Melina Beach Clay Sample A3 no data
Melina Beach Clay Sample A4 no data
Soil Moisture
Visual 64 A summary of soil moisture tests from all samples

51
Volume of Soil (ml)
Amount of Water
Soil Absorbed (ml) Porosity (%)
Primary Rainforest A1 20 ml 10 ml 100
Primary Rainforest A2 15 ml 6 ml 40
Primary Rainforest B3 no data no data no data
Primary Rainforest B4 no data no data no data
Secondary Rainforest A1 20 ml 9 ml 90
Secondary Rainforest A2 13 ml 6 ml 46
Secondary Rainforest A3 no data no data no data
Secondary Rainforest A4 no data no data no data
Mangrove A1 20 ml 5 ml 50
Mangrove A2 100 ml 36.5 36.5
Mangrove B3 no data no data no data
Mangrove B4 no data no data no data
Melina Beach Sand Sample A1 20 ml 20 ml 100
Melina Beach Clay Sample A2 13 ml 6 46
Melina Beach Clay Sample A3 no data no data no data
Melina Beach Clay Sample A4 no data no data no data
Soil Porosity
Visual 67 A summary of soil porosity testing
Soil Type
Total
height (ml)
Silt
(ml) Silt %
Sand
(ml) Sand %
Clay
(ml) Clay %
Water and Soil
Height (ml)
Primary
Rainforest 22 4 18.18% 17 77.27% 0 0.00% 98
Secondary
Rainforest 19 4 21.05% 12 63.16% 5 26.32% 94
Mangrove 21 3 14.29% 16 76.19% 3 14.29% 97
Melina Beach
(clay sample) 21 5 23.81% 12 57.14% 2 9.52% 105
Quantitative Soil Texture
Visual 66 A summary of quantitative soil texture testing

52
Soil Sample (Vol/Sec)
Sand at Melina Beach no data
Clay at Melina Beach no data
Primary Rainforest (A1) no data
Primary Rainforest (A2) 0.27
Primary Rainforest (B3) no data
Primary Rainforest (B4) no data
Secondary Rainforest (A1) no data
Secondary Rainforest (A2) 0.23
Secondary Rainforest (B3) no data
Secondary Rainforest (B4) no data
Mangroves (A1) no data
Mangroves (A2) 0.32
Clay (control) 0.02
Sand (control) 0.33
Water Percolation Rate
Location, group
Mass of empty
crucible (g)
Volume of
Soil (g)
Mass of crucible
and Soil (g)
Mass of crucible and soil
after heating (g)
% organics in
sample
Primary Rainforest
A1 38.57 31.77 70.34 50.84 27.72
Primary Rainforest
A2 no data no data no data no data no data
Primary Rainforest
B3 61.4 no data 94.89 no data no data
Primary Rainforest
B4 no data no data no data no data no data
Secondary
Rainforest A1 42.75 38.83 81.58 79.89 2.07
Secondary
Rainforest A2 no data no data no data no data no data
Secondary
Rainforest B3 35.53 no data 68.47 no data no data
Secondary
Rainforest B4 no data no data no data no data no data
Mangrove A1 41.13 57.34 98.47 92.84 5.72
Mangrove A2 72.07 50 125.74 no data no data
Mangrove B3 44.5 no data 47.4 no data no data
Mangrove B4 no data no data no data no data no data
Melina Beach A1 40.93 21.37 62.3 62.25 0.08
Melina Beach A2 no data no data no data no data no data
Melina Beach B3 no data no data no data no data no data
Melina Beach B4 no data no data no data no data no data
Organic Matter
Visual 68 A summary of water percolation rate testing results
Visual 69 A summary of organic matter testing results

53
Visual 70 A summary of soil fertility testing results
Visual 71 Qualitative soil tests results per site and group, comparing sand, silt, and clay amounts
Location
Soil Moisture
(% mass lost)
Percent
Organic Matter
(%) pH
Phosphate
(Trace, High,
Low, Medium)
Nitrate (Trace,
High, Low,
Medium)
Potassium
(Trace, High,
Low, Medium) Humus
Sand at Melina
Beach no data no data no data no data no data no data no data
Clay at Melina
Beach no data no data 8 Trace Trace Low 0
Primary
Rainforest (A1) no data 27.72% 5 Trace Trace High 1
Primary
Rainforest (A2) no data no data 6.7 Trace Trace High 3
Primary
Rainforest (B3) 1.79% no data 6.1 Trace Trace High 2
Primary
Rainforest (B4) no data no data 5 Trace no trace High 1
Secondary
Rainforest (A1) no data 2.07% 7 Trace Trace High 1
Secondary
Rainforest (A2) no data no data 5.5 Trace Low High 1.5
Secondary
Rainforest (B3) 1.95% no data 5.3 Trace Trace High 1.1
Secondary
Rainforest (B4) no data no data 5 Trace no trace High 1
Mangroves (A1) no data 5.72% 7 Trace trace High 3
Mangroves (A2) no data no data 7 Trace Trace High 1.5
Soil Fertility Testing

54
Secondary Rainforest Soil Composition
Silt %
Sand %
Clay %
Primary Rainforest Soil Composition
Silt %
Sand %
Clay %
Visual 72 Primary rainforest soil composition percentages
Visual 73 Secondary rainforest soil composition percentages

55
Mangrove Soil Composition
Silt %
Sand %
Clay %
Visual 74 Mangrove soil composition percentages
Melina Beach (clay sample) Soil Composition
Silt %
Sand %
Clay %
Visual 77 Melina Beach soil composition percentages
0.00%
1.00%
2.00%
3.00%
4.00%
5.00%
6.00%
7.00%
8.00%
9.00%
PercentageofMassLost
Sampling site
Soil Moisture indicated by mass lost in samples from sites
% Mass Loss
Visual 75 Soil Moisture comparing the site with the percentage of mass lost
Visual 76 Soil porosity results

56
Visual 78 Water Percolation Rate per site measured in volume/ second
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
Primary
Rainforest (A2)
Secondary
Rainforest (A2)
Mangroves
(A2)
Clay (control) Sand (control)
WaterPercolationRate(vol/sec)
Sampling site
Water Percolation Rate at Sampling sites
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
PrimaryRainforestA1
PrimaryRainforestA2
PrimaryRainforestB3
PrimaryRainforestB4
SecondaryRainforest…
MangroveA1
MangroveA2
MangroveB3
MangroveB4
MelinaBeachSand…
MelinaBeachClay…
MelinaBeachClay…
MelinaBeachClay…
Volumeofsoilandamountofwater
Sampling site
Soil porosity
Volume of Soil (ml)
Amount of Water Soil Absorbed
(ml)

57
Visual 79 Organic Matter in soil from different sites
Visual 80 Soil Fertility per site and team for phosphate, nitrate, and potassium the trace was 1, low was 4, and high was 9
The data collected suggested a good integrity ecosystem. Not only was this determined by the
general observations of the site, but also through soil fertility testing, moisture, organic matter, porosity,
and percolation rate. In the mangroves tested the mangrove trees seemed to be in fair condition. The
moisture content of the mangroves was high due to the water that covers the ground during high tides.
Because the mangrove soil was a large percentage of clay, the soil had a high percolation rate of 3.2
ml/sec. The high sand content benefits the mangroves because of the water that is continually passing
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
pHlevel,Trace=1,Low=4,High=9
Sampling site
Soil Fertility
Soil Fertility pH
Soil Fertility Phosphate (Trace,
High, Low, Medium)
Soil Fertility Nitrate (Trace,
High, Low, Medium)
Soil Fertility Potassium (Trace,
High, Low, Medium)
Soil Fertility Humus

58
through it. A few things could lower the integrity of the mangroves, two of the main issues due to
human interference is the trash caught in the tree roots and the humans playing in the water near the
mangroves. When visiting the mangroves, many people were observed playing in the water and a few
pieces of garbage were seen.
In the primary and secondary rainforest the secondary forest had less integrity than the primary
forest based on the data collected. More organic matter was found in the primary forest when
compared with the secondary forest, which indicates lower soil quality. This could be because of the
human impact on the secondary forest. The secondary forest was located closer to the village and had
water pipes along the path. Another impact humans have on the rainforest that was apparent in the
primary forest was the compaction of the soil along the trail path. This compaction prohibits the roots of
the trees from easily spreading and can cause competition for root growth. The trail compaction is
mostly due to the large, frequent number of people traveling through the forest. But, the integrity of the
primary forest was better due to the distance away from the village. Because the secondary forest had
more exposure to human impacts the secondary forest had lower levels of humus, higher levels of
nitrate, and larger clay composition than the primary forest. These all contribute to lower integrity of a
forest. However, the vegetation in the secondary forest as well as the primary forest seemed to be
thriving showing that the human impact on the rainforests in Tioman is moderate, if not minimal.
Fresh Water Stream River Cross Section and River Velocity
Aim
The freshwater stream river survey was conducted to determine the topography of the river and
how it relates to the quality of the stream. The depth, width, and velocity of the stream directly
correlate with the quality of the stream. Combined with the macroinvertebrates survey and WQI the
integrity of the stream can be determined.
Materials
 Measuring Tape
 Chain
 Bobbers
 Stopwatch
Methods
Wetted Perimeter: The chain was laid across the river, allowing it to sink in so it would form the
contours of the bottom of the stream. Where the stream ends was marked and the distance of the chain
was measured.
River Velocity: A 10 meter stretch of the stream was measured; two people stood at either end
of the 10 meters. The person upstream dropped five bobbers in the water at the left, right, and center
of the stream. The person downstream started the stopwatch when the person upstream released the
bobber, and stopped the timer as the bobber reached them. If the bobber got stuck, 1 minute was
waited before it was picked up.

59
Visual 81 Determining the river velocity downstream
River Cross Section: Tape from one end of the stream to the other was lain to find the width of
the stream, along with the bank width. This was repeated 10 to 15 times along the stream’s length. The
depth of the stream was determined by starting at the edge of the stream and using ranging poles to
measure the depth of water ever 20 cm.
Visual 82 A summary of the secondary forest river velocity testing
Position
1st
Reading
2nd
Reading
3rd
Reading
4th
Reading
5th
Reading Average
Surface
Velocity
(m/s)
Left
Stuck,
5m, 3:00
Stuck,
1.5m,
3:00
Stuck,
2m, 3:00
Stuck,1.5
m, 3:00
Stuck,
8m, 3:00
3.6m, 180sec (3
minutes) .02 m/sec
Middle 24 sec 19 sec 20 sec 21 sec
Stuck,
8m, 3:00 9.6m, 52.8 sec .18m/sec
Right 15 sec 14 sec 16 sec 15 sec 14 sec 10m, 14.8 sec .67m/sec
Secondary Forest River Velocity Readings

60
Visual 83 A summary of the secondary forest river cross section survey
Using this data, it can be concluded that the stream measured has a fairly good integrity. Also,
from this data it can be predicted that the area measured is located in the lower stage of the stream due
to the wide width of the stream, shallow depth, and slow velocity. As a stream starts its journey at the
top of a mountain, the water is fast flowing with low energy potential, resulting in large angular
substrates such as boulders. This stage of the stream was seen during the hike up to the primary forest.
After the upper stage is the middle stage of the river, characterized by the medium flowing water,
higher energy potential, deep water, and steep banks caused by the erosion of the water. Finally the
lower stage is identified by the shallow water, wide stream, and slow moving water that deposits
sediments as the water slows. In the tourist season, many people come to play in the lower stage of the
stream. This can raise the turbidity of the stream, affect the chemical composition of the water, and
erode the bank depositing sediments into the stream because of people walking in and out of the
stream. Excess sediments in the water can eventually block the stream and inhibit it from reaching the
sea.
Interval
Distance
from bank
(cm)
Stream
Depth
(cm)
1 76 10
2 152 12
3 228 21
4 304 42
5 380 46
6 456 45
7 532 19
8 608 5
9 684 4
10 0 0
Average
Depth: 20.4 cm
Stream
Width: 7.6 m
Bank
Width: 7.6 m
Secondary Forest River Cross Section

61
Visual 84 A graph showing the depth of the stream in relation to the distance from the bank
Macroinvertebrates Survey – Freshwater stream biotic index
Aim
The macroinvertebrates survey was used to determine the quality of the stream by identifying is
to determine the quality of the stream by identifying the different species that were sensitive or
tolerant. This was used in conjunction with the water quality index value of the stream to determine the
integrity of the freshwater stream.

62
Materials
The following materials were used to conduct the macroinvertebrates survey:
 Net
 Species Key
 Ethanol Alcohol
 Tweezers
Methods
A net was held behind the sampling area, ensuring that water flowed from the site directly into
the net and bottle. Bottom silt was disturbed through kicking, hence the procedure used was called kick
sampling, to release organisms needed to be caught by the net. Organisms were then bottled and
placed in ethanol to petrify them. A key was used to identify organisms and finally determine the quality
of the stream.
Visual 85 Pre sorting the macroinvertebrates

63
Visual 86 Back at the resort sorting and identifying the organisms
Visual 87 After sorting the macroinvertabrates

64
Visual 88 The results from the macroinvertebrates sorting
Visual 89 The results from the macroinvertebrates sorting

65
Sensitive organisms Frequency Somewhat sensitive organisms Frequency Tolerant organisms Frequency
Caddisfly Larvae 0 Beetle Larvae 0 Aquatic Worms 0
Hellgramite 0 Clams 0 Blackfly Larvae 0
Mayfly Larvae 0 Crane Fly Larvae 0 Leeches 0
Gilled Snails 0 Crayfish 0 Midge Larvae 9
Riffle Beetle Adult 0 Damselfly Larvae 0 Lunged Snails 2
Stonefly Larvae 0 Dragonfly Larvae 0 Shrimp 32
Water Penny Larvae 0 Scuds 0 Waterstriders 2
Sowbugs 0 Lung Snails 0
Fishfly Larvae 0
Alderfly Larvae 0
Macroinvertebrates and their frequencies, downstream
Total Index Value: 4, Poor
Table 1 and 2: Macroinvertebrates found in the Freshwater Stream in both upstream and downstream regions

66
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
NumberofOrganisms
Macroinvertebrates
Number of Macroinvertebrates found in the Freshwater Stream
(downstream)
Sensitive Somewhat Sensitive Tolerant
Visual 92 A summary of the macroinvertebrates survey downstream
Visual 90 A summary of the macroinvertebrates survey upstream
Visual 91 A summary of the macroinvertebrates survey upstream

67
Based on the number of organisms and their sensitivity to water conditions the overall quality of
the upstream region was found to be in relatively good condition, while downstream was concluded to
be of poor condition. In the upstream survey, the presence of a few sensitive and somewhat sensitive
organisms add to the integrity and quality of the stream, suggesting that the water is suitable for
organisms that would easily perish in polluted water. This demonstrates that the upstream region of the
freshwater stream is less accessed by the local people; it is fairly well hidden within the secondary
tropical rainforest as well. The riparian area was mostly intact, providing better filtration for the water
flowing through as well as habitats for the large macroinvertebrates that can’t survive in water.
In contrast, the downstream region of the stream seems to be trampled through often. With an
overall index value of 4, the poor condition of the water limits the types of macroinvertebrates that can
survive. Thus, only tolerant organisms, such as shrimp, were found in the poor quality downstream
sample. The riparian area may have been of a lower quality, limiting the filtration the water received.
The macroinvertebrates sampled and separated however, are only representative of a small
area of the upstream and downstream sections of the water flow. Kick sampling, in addition, may have
forced some macroinvertebrates to float away with the current, so the full range of organisms may not
have been caught and categorized.
Seemingly small and insignificant, the analysis of macroinvertebrates living in a stream reveals a
lot about the quality of the water. When the water quality improves with less disruption and less
pollution, the macroinvertebrates in turn will diversify, signifying a healthier freshwater stream.
Mangroves
Visual 93 A summary of the macroinvertebrates survey downstream

68
Aim
Quality of water and soil in the Paya Mangroves of Tioman Island were tested to evaluate the
ecological integrity and sustainability of the area. An overall water quality index value was calculated
using the percent saturation of dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrate and phosphate levels, total dissolved solids
as well as total suspended solids. Soil quality was tested using the percolation rate, soil porosity, mass of
organic matter in the sample, organisms present, soil texture, and moisture. Other conditions such as
humidity, light intensity, air temperature, water temperature, conductivity, and salinity were also
measured.
Materials and Equipment
The following equipment was used in testing water and soil quality in the mangroves:
Water
 Dissolved oxygen testing kit
 pH probe
 Humidity probe
 Conductivity probe
 Refractometer
 Turbidity kit
 Thermometers
Soil
 Soil testing kit
 Potassium testing kit
 pH
Visual 94 Mangrove site, with the knobby roots showing above the sand

69
 Humus
 100 mL graduated cylinder
 250mL beaker
 Drying oven
 Ring stand and burner
 Filter paper
 Ethanol
 Heat lamp
 Burlese funnel
 Hand lens
 Aluminum foil
 Porcelain crucible
 Ruler
 Hot plate
 Weighing scale
Other materials and equipment
 Light intensity probe
 Thermometers
Visual 95 A CHEMet dissolved oxygen kit

70
Visual 96 Shannon tests the pH of the mangrove water

71
Methods
Soil and water samples from the Paya mangrove site were taken and tested for certain
physicochemical parameters as well as quality. Specific actions taken are below:
Soil testing
Soil texture and fertility
Soil texture was evaluated qualitatively by taking a small, moist wad of soil and rubbing it
against the thumb and forefinger. Gritty texture suggested a soil sample mainly constituted of sand,
sticky implied clay, and neither sticky nor gritty was found to be silt. Long, unbroken ribbons of soil were
made; if these stayed holding, it was confirmed that the sample was clay. Short ribbons were found to
be silt or loam and no ribbons being able to be formed suggested sand or sandy loam. Quantitative soil
testing was performed by pouring a certain volume of soil into a 100 mL empty graduated cylinder.
Water was added until the meniscus reached the 100 mL mark and the waterlogged sample was shaken
several times. Left alone for over 24 hours to settle, the soil sample’s different colored sections were
measured. Particles on the bottom were measured to be large and dense, hence sand, while in the
middle, silt was settled, and on the top, the fine clay particles were found. The percentage of silt, sand,
and clay was measured of the sample and applied to a soil triangle to understand the type of soil. Using
a soil testing kit, pH, phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and humus levels were ascertained from the
physical sample.
Soil moisture
Soil moisture was found by taking a series of steps to measure the amount of water in the
sample. A small aluminum foil tray was formed and a small scoop of soil was placed onto it; masses were
recorded before and after the soil was added. Over 24 hours, the soil sample was placed in a drying
oven at a temperature of 90 to 95 degrees Celsius and at the end, the final mass was recorded again.
The percentage of mass lost was found to be the soil moisture quantity.
Percent Organic Matter
A cleaned, dry crucible was obtained and massed. It was filled with ¾ of soil and placed in a
drying oven of 90 to 95 degrees Celsius to evaporate any water. Once this is finished, the final mass of
the crucible and soil was recorded. The crucible was then placed on a ring stand in a fume hood, using
an iron ring and pipe-stem triangle, and heated for 30 minutes. The mass of the crucible and soil was
measured again.
Soil porosity
To determine soil porosity, a 250 mL beaker was filled with dried soil to the 200 mL mark. Then a
100 mL graduated cylinder was filled to the 100 mL mark with water and the water was poured onto the
surface of the soil until it became completely saturated. As water began to pool on the surface, the
amount of water used was found to be the amount of pore space in the sample of soil.
Soil dry percolation rate
To measure how fast water flowed through the dry soil, a small piece of filter paper was first
placed in the neck of a 16-oz water bottle. This funneled section was set into the bottom part of the
water bottle so that water draining through was collected. These steps were repeated for each sample
of sand, clay, and soil. The percolation rate was recorded in cubic centimeters of water per surface area

72
of sample per second. This was done by calculating the cross-sectional area of the funnel, pouring water
onto the surface of each sample and recording the time it took for the water to hit the surface of the
bottom. The final water volume and elapsed time was recorded.
Counting macroinvertebrates
The top of a 2 liter clear soda bottle was cut 2 to 3 cm below where the sides become parallel.
20 to 25 mL of ethanol was placed in the bottom part of the bottle, while the funnel was placed on top.
A section of wired mesh was placed in the neck of the funnel, then filled with soil and humus sample
about 2 cm from the rim. A heat lamp about 10 cm away from the surface of the soil was placed to
speed up the drying and help drive organisms to the bottom of the funnel. The organisms fell into the
ethanol in preparation to be identified and counted.
Visual 97 A summary of the mangrove testing results
Results
The results of the water and soil testing at the Paya Mangrove site demonstrate that the
ecosystem is of acceptable, if not average, quality. The relatively low water quality index value of 49.18,
out of 100, was due to low dissolved oxygen levels, and absolutely no nitrates or phosphates in the
water.
Soil testing revealed a neutral pH, trace levels of phosphates and nitrates, high potassium levels,
and varying humus levels. While high potassium levels in the soil are necessary for strong plant growth,
the lack of nitrates and phosphates may have contributed to the limited plant life around the Paya
mangrove site.
Since the samples of soil and water collected were representative of only a section of the site,
not the whole ecosystem, it is possible that the results are not applicable on a larger scale. The poor
Test Q-Value Weighting Factor TOTAL
Dissolved Oxygen 5.5 PPM 60% Sat 58 0.17 9.86
pH 5.57 units 43 0.11 4.73
Temperature Change no data ° C 0.11 0
Fecal Coliform no data colonies/100mL 0.16 0
BOD no data mg/L 0.16 0
Nitrate 0 mg/L 98 0.11 10.78
Total Phosphates 0 mg/L 100 0.1 10
Total Dissolved Solids 21.9 mg/L 83 0.07 5.81
Total Suspended Solids 17.8 feet or NTUs 100 0.08 8
Test Results
A2 Paya Mangrove Water Quality
WQI = 49.18
Soil
Soil Moisture
(% mass lost)
Percent
Organic
Matter (%) pH
Phosphate (Trace,
High, Low, Medium)
Nitrate (Trace,
High, Low, Medium)
Potassium (Trace,
High, Low,
Medium) Humus
Mangroves
(A1) no data 5.72% 7 Trace Trace High 3
Mangroves
(A2) no data no data 7 Trace Trace High 1.5
Paya Mangrove Soil Quality

73
integrity of the water and soil, however, may be attributed to the frequent human intrusion of the area.
Fairly close to a jetty, fishing area, and recreational center, the mangroves were clearly seen to be
subject to water and air pollution. People lay on strips of sand, disturbing the soil, and littered around
them. Only small crabs were noted to be the most prevalent organisms.
Action must be taken to protect the mangroves of Tioman Island soon. These important
ecosystems serve as buffers between the water front and land areas, often protecting the coastline
against storm surges. Taking note of recent natural disasters such as Typhoon Haiyan, the Malaysian
government must be able to recognize the importance of the mangrove ecosystem and try to limit
human inflicted damage as much as possible.
Water Quality Index – Special Focus
Aim
To evaluate the integrity of the water in various locations, water samples were collected and
their physicochemical qualities were measured. These parameters included dissolved oxygen, pH,
biological oxygen demand, nitrate and phosphate levels, total dissolved solids, and total suspended
solids. In addition, certain other tests were performed and their results recorded, including salinity,
water temperature, depth, as well as the ambient air temperature and light intensity. A final water
quality index value was calculated for the water sampled at each site.
Materials
The following materials were used in testing the physicochemical properties of a number of
water samples:
 Dissolved oxygen testing kit
 pH probe
 Humidity probe
 Conductivity probe
 Refractometer
 Turbidity kit
 Thermometers
Visual 98 The materials used to conduct the water quality index survey

74
Visual 99 Visual 12.2 Humidity probe for evaluating ambient conditions
Visual 100 Jacqueline uses a refractometer to measure salinity
Visual 101 Seci dish depth to measure turbidity

75
Visual 102 Preparing the water to determine Biological Oxygen Demand
Visual 103 Testing the dissolved oxygen content of the water
Methods
CHEMets kits were utilized to determine percent saturation of oxygen, nitrogen levels and
phosphate levels in a certain sample of water. A final Water Quality Index value was calculated with
each physicochemical parameter considered.

76
MBR Pond MBR Coast
Freshwater
Stream
Downstream
Freshwater
Stream
Upstream Paya Mangrove
Disturbed
Coral Reef
Undisturbed
Coral Reef
Average depth (m) no data no data no data no data no data 4.25 6.5
Average width (m) no data no data no data no data no data no data no data
Air temperature (deg C) 28.9 no data 28 26.35 29.53 31.45 31.7
Water temperature (deg C) 27 no data 24.7 24.325 28.7 30.35 30.6
Substrate at water's edge Rock no data no data Rock, Sand Sand Sand Sand
Percentage cloud cover 60% no data no data 75% no data 25% 40%
Water odor no data no data no data no data no data no data no data
Water color Dark Green no data Clear no data Murky Brown Murky Blue Clear Blue
Water pH level 5.8 7.76 7.55 7.4 6.26 9.17 8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 15.5 13 1.5 26.5 19.07 18.7 48
Turbidity (JTU) 20 20 no data 5 32.5 10 2.5
Secci Disk Depth (m) no data no data no data no data no data 3 > 7 m
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 8 6 6 7 5.12 6.75 5.5
Biological Oxygen Demand (ppm) no data no data no data 8 no data no data no data
Phosphates (ppm) 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0
Nitrates (ppm) 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0
Relative humidity (%) no data no data no data 88.7 66.3 58.75% 69.03%
Light intensity (lux) no data no data no data 405 486.4 489.1 518.7
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) 69 79.2 74.8 8.4 81.93 126.65 157.01
Coliform bacteria (+/-) no data no data no data no data no data no data no data
Salinity (ppt) 2 no data 10 0 3.5 29 32.5
Water QualityData Analysis and Results, SummaryTable 1
Visual 104 Water Quality Data Analysis, Summary Table 1
Visual 105 Where water was sampled at the disturbed coral reef

77
Data, Observations, Analysis
Summary Table #1: At each site location – tropical rainforest freshwater stream (upstream and
downstream), Melina Beach Resort (MBR) freshwater pond and coast, Paya mangroves, coral reefs
(disturbed and undisturbed), multiple abiotic factors were measured and taken into consideration while
calculating the water quality index values. Water color of each water sampling site gives insight into the
human impact that each water body is afflicted with; for example, the Paya mangroves, easily accessible
to fishermen and the public, had murky brown water. With the exception of the results of the
freshwater downstream survey, no nitrates or phosphates were found in the water samples. Many
sections of data were not recorded, thus leaving room for error and misinterpretation in the final
determination of the ecosystems’ integrity.
Summary Table #2: Four main physicochemical parameters were tested for and evaluated at each of the
seven sites; dissolved oxygen levels were found to be higher than 5 parts per million at each site, but on
the other hand, nitrates and phosphates levels were almost always 0 parts per million. Much of the
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) data is missing, so the final results are subject to misinterpretation and
error.
MBR Pond MBR Coast
Freshwater
Stream
Downstream
Freshwater
Stream Upstream Paya Mangrove
Disturbed
Coral Reef
Undisturbed
Coral Reef
Biological Oxygen Demand (ppm) no data no data no data 8 no data no data no data
Phosphates (ppm) 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0
Nitrates (ppm) 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0
Water Quality Data Analysis and Results, Summary Table 2
Visual 106 A table and graph summarizing physicochemical water quality parameters results

78
MBR Pond
MBR
Coast
Freshwater
Stream
Downstream
Freshwater
Stream
Upstream
Paya
Mangrove
Disturbed
Coral Reef
Undisturbed
Coral Reef
Water color Dark Green no data Clear no data Murky Brown Murky Blue Clear Blue
Water pH level 5.8 7.76 7.55 7.4 6.26 9.17 8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 15.5 13 1.5 26.5 19.07 18.7 48
Turbidity (JTU) 20 20 no data 5 32.5 10 2.5
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) 69 79.2 74.8 8.4 81.93 126.65 157.01
Salinity (ppt) 2 no data 10 0 3.5 29 32.5
Summary Table #3: Featuring the sites’ water color, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen levels, conductivity
(also known as total dissolved solids) and salinity, this table summarizes other physicochemical
parameters that were measured and recorded during the investigation. As seen from the graph, total
dissolved solids or conductivity in milligrams per liter, was generally high when turbidity in both NTU
and JTU was also elevated. This suggests that perhaps the suspended particles contributing to high
readings of turbidity may also be the dissolved solids that determine a water sample’s conductivity. In
turn, the water’s color may be a function of the dissolved solids. Levels of pH varied depending on the
site, as did the dissolved oxygen levels and salinity.
Visual 107 A summary of the physicochemical water testing done

79
Summary Table #4: From each of the physicochemical parameters and abiotic factors measured at the
seven sites, a water quality index value, out of 100, was calculated and recorded. The highest water
quality was found to be at the disturbed coral reef site, quite surprising as the ecosystem was degraded
due to human intervention. The high water quality index value of 61.73 at the disturbed coral reef may
be attributed to experimental error; the lowest was found to be at the Melina Beach Resort pond, with
an index value of 44.27. This suggests that constant human disruptions that the pond may be subject to,
since it is in such close proximity to human habitation, may have adversely affected the pond’s index
value. The difference between the freshwater downstream, 57.48, and the freshwater upstream, 60.29,
demonstrates that the downstream regions of the tropical rainforest stream are accessed by the locals
more than the upstream regions, thus contributing to the lower quality. Macroinvertebrates surveyed at
the stream site, addressed in another section of this report, confirm the lower quality of the
downstream region of the stream.
Analysis of the water quality index values and each of the abiotic factors that contribute to the
index values proves that Tioman Island’s water bodies have different quality levels.
Dissolved oxygen levels are a key contributor the water quality index value. It is often
determined by the decay of organic waste, velocity of water flowing, climate and season, suspended
MBR Pond MBR Coast
Freshwater Stream
Downstream
Freshwater Stream
Upstream
Paya
Mangrove
Disturbed
Coral Reef
Undisturbed
Coral Reef
Water Quality Index Value 44.27 47.3 57.48 60.29 49.18 61.73 48.88
Visual 108 A short summary of the water quality index value of each sampling site

80
solids, riparian vegetation levels, and surface water flow. Any absence of these factors would reduce the
amount of DO in the water. When the biological oxygen demand (BOD) was tested in the lab, the
velocity of water flowing and riparian vegetation levels didn’t impact the water. The only site with BOD
data was the freshwater upstream region, with 8 parts per million of oxygen demand and had pollution
been a big problem, the BOD rating would have definitely been higher.
Water pollution may have influenced the results significantly, as waste contributes to DO,
further influencing BOD, and so on. This is a problem for countries all over the world, including Tioman
Island. Agriculturally driven fertilizer use may contribute to eutrophication of a local water body.
Recreational activities such as boating pollute the water in terms of their carbon emissions and the
emptying of sewer material into the local body of water may significantly contribute to the low quality
of water. Constant human disturbances cause the water to be more turbid and less hospitable to other
macroinvertebrates; in polluted streams, the dissolved oxygen levels can decrease, forcing biological
demand of oxygen to shoot up. These three factors, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and BOD, play an
important role in the calculation of water quality, thus if the stream is polluted, the index value will also
drop. To tackle the problem, governments may look at the source of the pollution and determine
effective strategies to control and/or limit the pollution caused. Certain activities may be banned or
charged a fee for extended periods of time; boating may be only allowed a few days a month, as
opposed to free, easily accessible water body that is susceptible to pollution.
Although data for fecal coliform was not recorded, the presence of coliform bacteria gives
evidence of any organic or fecal waste in the water body. If present, this can indicate a polluting source
that has feces in it, which would then be possibly home to pathogenic bacteria or viruses that could
harm and potentially kill a nearby animal population that depends on the water body for survival. Some
of the infectious pathogens that a positive fecal coliform test could indicate include bacterial
gastroenteritis and hepatitis A.
Each of the water sampling sites housed organisms that were unique to that particular
ecosystem. In the mangroves, an abundance of crabs was observed by the low tide mark of the water,
while the tropical rainforest stream proved to be an environment suitable for a number of smaller
macroinvertebrates like shrimp and midges. This suggests that each organism’s niche is specific to a
certain area, even within the larger rainforest biome; their proximity and even inhabitancy in the water
indicates the quality of the water from a more biological lens.
Water as a resource is extremely important and must be conserved. The water-related
ecosystems on Tioman Island may be under threat due to the decreasing of water quality. All care must
be taken to promote the healthy maintenance of resort ponds and coastal areas, freshwater streams,
and coral reefs.

81
Visual 109 A giant clam among Tioman's corals
Biodiversity and Real World Application
The biodiversity of life and ecosystems on Tioman Island is
remarkable, a true representation of the value of the rainforest
biome. From nudibranchs to trekker fish, and ginger to hammerhead
flatworms, over one hundred organisms were observed on a short
five day trip to the island. Each of these species play a vital role in
their own niche, carrying out ecological services that sustain their
ecosystem. Two major keystone species, the giant clam and red
mangrove, were observed in their natural habitat. Giant clams enlist
the help of symbiotic zooanthallae algae to form their shell, an
important reef structure; they also filter microalgae that pose danger
to the corals from the water and enhance the integrity of the coral
reef ecosystem. Due to their large size and slow growth, the clams
are often the target of sea bed harvesting as well as decorative
pieces. The red mangrove tree has long roots that bend over to reach
the water’s edge, stabilizing the soil, protecting the coast from
erosion, and providing sanctuaries for a number of coral reef fish.
While the coral reefs’ proximity to urban
development and hence vulnerability to ship anchoring and
pollution clearly took a toll on the species richness, abundance, evenness, and average relative
frequency of organisms in the ecosystem, there were certain regions that were pristine and home to
hundreds of fish and other marine life. Relatively low human intrusion in the depths of the primary and
secondary forest proved to be useful, as an abundance of rare trilobite beetles were found lurking on
fallen trunks of trees. The various regions of the stream surveyed, however, differed in their richness,
abundance, evenness, and relative frequency of macroinvertebrates. A total index value of 17, qualified
by good, suggested that the upstream part of the fresh water stream was in better condition than the
downstream section of the stream, found to have numerous tolerant organisms, thus falling under the
poor category, with an index value of 2.
Tioman Island, on the surface, seems to have a relatively small urban scene, yet there are still
numerous human threats to each of the ecosystems that need to be attended to. Villages, shops, docks,
restaurants, and resorts pollute waterways and trash pristine forest. Airports, jetties, and roads provide
“easy” (but environmentally degrading) means of transportation around the island that is sure to draw
more tourists and emit tons of carbon dioxide gas. A golf course on the island and the many resorts,
especially convenient for the hordes of visitors to the area, force deforestation to occur and consume
several hundreds of gallons of water as well as pesticides and fertilizers to maintain. Development on
Tioman Island requires enormous amounts of electricity, provided by nonrenewable sources including
coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Railroads, shipping lanes, and other service lines bring electrical wires,
aqueducts and oil pipelines onto the island in large numbers. Untreated waste from chickens and cows
owned by locals makes its way into the freshwater streams that run throughout the island and there has
been talk about oil palm plantations being set up, replacing the lush, biodiverse rainforests. Many local
people also take advantage of the biological resources available on the island for economic purposes;
trophy hunts, butterfly collections, pest control, wild mushroom collection, logging, overfishing,
trawling, seal hunting, and live coral collection are some of the anthropogenic activities that leave
negative impacts on the environment of Tioman.

82
Visual 110 An aerial view of an eco-link over a major highway
There are so many areas that humans need to improve on. Coral reefs, however, are one of the
most valuable ecosystems on the planet and one of the most rapidly degrading too. Tioman Island has
the luxury, for now, of being able to call some of its beautiful reefs its own. Ship anchorage and
immense construction, development, and tourist attractions result in the degradation of the pristine
coral reefs, home to hundreds of valuable marine species. What can the Malaysian government do to
help? An overarching governmental agency in charge of the conservation and preservation of water
bodies and ecosystems, perhaps in partnership with the United States’ National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation, may be able to reinforce laws and provide funding for projects specific to coral reefs. A non-
profit organization, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation has contributed over $30.1 million to coral
reef related conservation schemes in 39 countries. More of the island’s coral reefs could be protected in
the future with collaboration.
The data collected on Tioman Island can be used to relate to larger ecosystems and help
understand the adverse effects of anthropogenic activity on nature. The unfrequented roads, airports,
and jetties on Tioman Island although few in number, seem to have a large impact on the surrounding
ecosystem. The fragmentation of the rainforests by the roads has created an edge effect and reduced
the biodiversity of the area surrounding the road. The changes on the island are significant; yet by
comparison, cities and suburban regions – the more developed areas – have the lowest biodiversity and
ecosystem health. After collating all the data collected on the island, it can be concluded that the more
developed an ecosystem is, the less healthy it becomes.
For example, nearby Singapore is a well-
developed country, mostly covered in HDBs and
winding roads, one of which – the BKE – runs directly
through Bukit Timah Nature Reserve. However, what
sets Singapore apart from other cities is the steps the
government has taken to limit the effects of
urbanization on wildlife. To reduce fragmentation of
habitat and enhance the safety of wildlife crossing the
road, an eco-link has been placed over the road for
animals to cross without being hit by a car. The eco-
link is a small bridge over the road covered in foliage
to encourage organisms to cross safely. Singapore
realizes the negative impact that humans can have on
an ecosystem, due to studies similar to that
performed on Tioman Island. The data collected on this investigation of Tioman Island can be used to
relate to larger more complex systems and provide alternative solutions to reduce the negative impacts.
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