This document summarizes a lecture on decision making and skill acquisition in sports. It discusses key topics like the definition of decision making and factors that influence decisions. It also defines skills, different types of skills, and stages of skill acquisition. Additionally, it examines whether decision making relies on previous experience and knowledge or is emergent. Finally, it provides strategies for improving decision making skills, such as using variability in practice.
2. Aims and objectives…
To understand
1. the meaning of decision making, and the factors that
may influence a decision during team and individual
sports
2. the meaning of skill, skill acquisition, different stages
of skill acquisition and the types of skills
4. Talking Points
1. Quick Quiz
2. What is “decision making”…?
3. Why is “decision making” important in sport…?
4. What external dynamics influence “decision making”…?
5. What is a “skill”…?
6. Different types of “skills”…
7. What is “skill acquisition”…?
8. 3 Stages of “skill acquisition”…
9. Is decision making interdependent on skill acquisition…?
10. How do you increase “decision making” skills…?
10. What is Decision Making…?
Decision Making is described as–
“knowing which technique to use in any given situation’
(Knapp, 1963).”
11. Why is Decision Making important
in sport…?
Baker, Côté and Abernethy (2003, p.14) suggest that…
“A key characteristic underlying expert performance in team ball
sports is decision making….”
12. What external dynamics influence Decision
Making …?
Dynamics influence a players decision during team
sports…
For example:
“sports situations possess external dynamics, meaning that
the situation itself changes over time. At one moment, some
information may be available (e.g., goalie position) that is not
available in the next moment (e.g., due to obstruction)
(Johnson, 2006, p. 633).”
What external dynamics influence decisions during
individual sports….?
For example, tennis, bowls, archery, table tennis….
13. What external dynamics influence Decision
Making …?
In groups pick a sport and list the
external dynamics that may influence a
decision for individual based sports…
5 minutes
14. Quick Recap
1. We know what decision making is in sport.
2. We know why decision making is important in sport.
3. We know what external factors influence decision
making in team and individual sports.
16. What is A skill …?
A skill can be described as–
“When we speak of a “skill” we mean an ability that allows a
goal to be achieved within some domain with increasing
likelihood as a result of practice (Rosenbaum, Carlson and
Gilmore, 2001, p.454).”
or…
“using knowledge, understanding, expertise and know-how,
efficiently and effectively to achieve or overcome a specific
objective (Bizley, 2013).”
17. Different types of skills…?
Jarvis (2006) classifies skills as gross and fine, and also open
and closed skills…
and suggest that gross skills are those which require large
muscular movement.
Jarvis (2006) also indicates that fine skills require tiny muscular
movements, “such as are required for an elite standard
gymnastic performance.”
Is that true…?
18. Different types of skills…?
Conflictingly, McMoriss, 2004 states that fine motor skills are
rarely, if ever, found in sport and are skills which require the
use of few limbs and are undertaken in limited space, e.g.,
writing, typing and sewing.
Can you think of a sport that uses fine motor skills…?
19. Different types of skills…?
With regards to open and closed skills recent studies agree
that, open skills are those that take place in a continually
changing environment, whereby skills and techniques are
constantly adapted to suit (Bizley, 2013; McMoriss, 2004;
Rosenbaum, Carlson and Gilmore, 2001; Magil, 1998). i.e.
invasion games, football, basketball, rugby…
On the other hand, a closed skill is one described as a skill that
takes place in a similar and unchanging environment (Bizley,
2013; McMoriss, 2004) i.e. shot putt or gymnastic routine focus
on technique…
20. What is skill acquisition…?
A skill acquisition can be described as–
“When we speak of “acquisition of skill” we refer to the
attainment of those practice-related capabilities that
contribute to the increased likelihood of goal
achievement(Rosenbaum, Carlson and Gilmore, 2001, p.454).”
or…
“Skill acquisition can be described as acquiring or learning the
necessary ability (Chandler, Cronin and Vamplew, 2002, p.184).”
21. 3 stages of skill acquisition…?
• Focus
• Higher mental
processing power
• Think about the
movement
• Use visual senses
The
cognitiv
e stage
• Use proprioception
(feeling)
• Less errors
• Improve speed
accuracy and
consistency
• Refinement
The
associativ
e stage
• Almost
automatic/habitual
• Multitask (focus on
strategy
• Very few errors
• Done with out
consciously thinking
The
autonomous
stage
Fitts & Posner’s (1967) three stages of skill acquisiition.
22. Are decision making skills interdependent on skill acquisition…?
McMoriss (2004), suggest that having a range of skills allows a
person to become more equipped, and perform better, in
comparison to someone who has a weaker skill set.
Additionally, McMoriss (2004) further indicates that decision
making skills are vastly dependent on previous experience.
23. So, is it safe to say, that
decision making in sport
is solely based on
previous knowledge…?
24. Quick quiz ‘intellectual skill experiment’
**If anyone became nervous or started getting sweaty palms…
Apologies…**
1. Did every body successfully answer each question…?
2. Were some questions easier than others…?
3. Were the decisions made in solving a question dependent on
previous knowledge or skills learnt…?
4. Why was this different from a decision that may need to be made in
a team sports game (perceptual-motor skills)
**Will 5 x 5 be the same tomorrow, and the next, and the day after
that….?
25. Are decision making skills interdependent on skill acquisition…?
In a conflicting argument, there is growing evidence that
decision making is an emergent process rather than a
completely predefined process based on knowledge stored in
memory (Araújo, Davids, & Serpa, 2005).
26. Are decision making skills interdependent on skill acquisition…?
Another argument suggest that, when making decisions we do
not try to recall specific and precise past situations but rather
generalise from previous rules or patterns. Which then allow us to
make an accurate decision regardless of differences between the
present situation and past experiences (Schmidt, 1975).
Although Schmidt’s (1975) notion is a better explanation than
earlier theories, Information Processing Theory is still unable to
explain how we can perform in novel situations for which we have
no previous patterns or rules for (McMoriss,2004).
Transference of skills…???? (maybe another day)
27. Are decision making skills interdependent on skill acquisition…?
Differently, Anderson (1982) suggests the reason we are able
to make such quick decisions is by using Adaptive Control of
Thought (ACT).
Andersons (1982) theory states that, when making decisions
we predetermine what we will do in any given situation
(beforehand), and that we go through a series of ‘if this
happens, then we do that’.
However, the decision is still based on past experience, but
deciding beforehand allows us to respond quickly.
What do you think…?
28. Are decision making skills interdependent on skill acquisition…?
Decision
Making
Skills
(acquirement)
Practice
Variability of
practice
Previous
experience
29. How to increase decision making skills…
Source: Stratton et al., 2004 p.129.
Figure 1. A model illustrating the relationship between variability of
practice and contextual interference
30. How to increase decision making skills…
Variability of practice means practising the skill using a variety
of task and environmental demands.
Variability of practice is vital because otherwise we cannot
develop schemas and hence build up generalized motor
programs.
Theoretically, there is very strong support for variability of
practice. However, research is less supportive. Research with
children has generally supported variability. However, with
adults it has generally failed to support the theory. It is almost
certain that the children are in the developmental process of
building up schemas, whereas the adults have probably gone
through these processes during their childhood. Therefore,
varying practice has less of an effect (McMoriss,2004).
31. How to increase decision making skills…
In a study by Baker, Côté and Abernethy (2003) that looked at
the learning and practice activities from expert decision makers
in sport, found that competition, video training, and organized
training, were rated as helpful for developing decision-making
abilities. Contrastingly weight training, aerobic training,
reading about sport, and practice alone were rated as not
helpful.
ProZone - notational analysis
How can you tangible monitor
decision making…?
32. How to increase decision making skills…
(Davids, Button, Bennett, 2008; Baker, Côté and Abernethy, 2003; Raab, 2003).
Improve
Decision
Making
Use of different
equipment
Time
constraints
Explicit practice
with high
interference
Different rules
Reduced space
Increase or
decrease
opponents
Competition
33. Practical/workshop
1. Research Notational Analysis and free notational analysis
software**
2. Needs analysis - Pick a sport and determine the specific
biomechanical demands of the sport (or action/function
within the sport).
3. Improve Decision Making - Develop an explicit practice with
high interference to improve one specific action/function
within your chosen sport.
34. References
• Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological
review, 89(4), 369.
• Araújo, D., Davids, K., & Serpa, S. (2005). An ecological approach to
expertise effects in decision-making in a simulated sailing regatta.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(6), 671-692.
• Baker, J., Cote, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Sport-specific practice and
the development of expert decision-making in team ball sports.
Journal of applied sport psychology, 15(1), pp.12-25.
• Bizley, K. (2013) Physical Education. 2nd edn. Cheltenham: Nelson
Thrones.
• Chandler, T. Conin, M. and Vamplew, W. (2002). Sports and Physical
Education, The Key Concepts. London: Routledge.
35. References
• Davids, K. W., Button, C., & Bennett, S. J. (2008). Dynamics of
skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach. United States of
America: Human Kinetics.
• Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance.
• Jarvis, M. (2006). Sport psychology: A student's handbook. East
Sussex: Routledge.
• Johnson, J. G. (2006). Cognitive modeling of decision making in
sports. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(6), 631-652.
• Knapp, B. (1963). Skill in sport: the attainment of proficiency.
Routledge.
• Magill, R. A. (1998). Knowledge is More Than we Can Talk
About: Implicit Learning in Motor Skill Acquisition. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69(2), pp.104-110.
36. References
• McMorris, T. (2004) Acquisition and Performance of
Sports Skills. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Raab, M. (2003). Decision making in sports: Influence
of complexity on implicit and explicit learning.
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
1(4), pp.406-433.
• Rosenbaum, D. A., Carlson, R. A., & Gilmore, R. O.
(2001). Acquisition of Intellectual and Perceptual-
Motor Skills. Annual review of psychology, 52(1),
pp.453-470.
• Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete
motor skill learning. Psychological review, 82(4), 225.
Editor's Notes
By an “intellectual skill” we mean a skill whose goal is symbolic. By a “perceptual-motor skill” we mean a skill whose goal is non-symbolic. Examples of intellectual skills are solving or making significant headway toward solving mathematics problems, and winning or at least competing respectably in chess. Examples of perceptual-motor skills are playing the violin so as to attract rather than repel one’s listeners, and boxing so as to repel rather than attract one’s opponents.
Intuitively, intellectual skills and perceptual-motor skills seem very different. Perceptual-motor skills seem more primitive than intellectual skills. Ontogenetically, perceptual-motor skills develop before intellectual skills, or at least before most intellectual skills are manifested. Phylogenetically, creatures “high on the evolutionary ladder” are more obviously capable of intellectual skills than are creatures “lower down.” (Rosenbaum, Carlson and Gilmore, 2001)
Intellectual skills, as indicated in our definition of the term, have symbolic outcomes. They consist of actions that relate not just to the here and now but also to events that may be remote in time or space.
Perceptual-motor skills, by contrast, have non-symbolic outcomes and consist (or seem to consist) of actions that relate only to the immediate time and place in which they occur (Rosenbaum, Carlson and Gilmore, 2001).
Fundamentally as a sportsmen or woman you want to outwit your opponent….
Fine motor skills are rarely, if ever, found in sport and are skills which require the use of few limbs and are undertaken in limited space, e.g., writing, typing and sewing.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/darts/30768266
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/gymnastics/34651985
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TytCz4sMF_I
According to Poulton, open skills require much in the way of information processing and take place in environ- ments that are rarely, if ever, completely repeated. The change in environment means that every time the skill is performed, the performer must modify his/her technique to achieve the same goal, or even use a different technique to achieve the goal. Closed skills, on the other hand, take place in the same or very similar environments, therefore the same technique can be used over and over again (McMoriss, 2004).
Those who have ever learnt a new sport will be aware that their new skills develop gradually, and that they have to concentrate less and less on what they are doing with time.
Intellectual Experiment i.e. intellectual skills
Finite answer
Perceptual-motor skills seem to consist of actions that relate only to the immediate time and place in which they occur
