1. Sarah Astra
How did a person’s gender or status affect their experience of ancient religions?
Withinancientreligion,there isacleardistinctionbetweenthe social classof the worshippers
and officialsandtheirgendertoo.While certainpriesthoods allowedthoseof bothgendersand
differentsocialsclassestoparticipate,otherofficialscouldonlybe upper-classmales.Similarly,certain
cultsonlyallowedspecificgenderstobe a part of them, withthe example of Mithras.Interestingly
enoughthoughwasthat withregardsto everydayworship,menandwomenwere generallyseenas
equal.Bothcouldgive offeringstothe same gods(itall dependedonwhattheywere askingforin
return),aswell assacrificingtothe same gods. Inaddition,raisingpeople of bothsexesinupper-class
familieswasoftenmuchdifferentthanraisingthose inlower-classfamilies,withregardstothe ancient
religionandtheirroleswithinit.
Thoughit istrue that there are specificexamplesof priestesseswithinancient religions,the
majorityof priestsandofficialsweremales.Thiswasnotnormallydue tospecificlawsthatstated
womencouldnotbe priests,butmore so because itwasjust uncommon.Some of the orderswhichhad
priestessesincludedthe Vestal Virgins andthe more obscure SalianVirgins(Beard&North 19).
However,manyof the womenwhowere chosentobe priestesseswere pickedfrom differentfamilies
whentheywere of youngage,thoughsocial classwasnot necessarilyanissue here.Withthe example
of the Vestal Virgins,the girlswouldbe chosenbetweenthe agesof six andtenandthe only
requirementsfortheiracceptance wasthattheyneededtohave bothlivingparents(Beard &North22).
Thisshowsthat withcertaingroups,social classmade little difference,all theycaredaboutwasthe
specificage andgenderof a person.
In the earliestperiodof Romanhistory,the majorityof priestlyofficeswere heldbypatrician
familiesandothermiddle/upperclassindividuals.However,withthe changingof timesandthe

2. expansionof the lowerandmiddleclasses,thischanged.The restrictionwasgraduallybrokendown
that, bythe third centuryBC,many plebeiansandotherlower-classindividualswere allowedintomost
priesthoods(Beard &North19). Thiswas notseenas progressto everyone duringthistime,asNorth
explainsinhisarticle,“There are occasional mentions,mostlyimplyingelitedisapproval,of lower-class
diviners”(Beard&North58). This meantthatthese lower-classindividualswere notalwaysacceptedin
the general orderof Rome.However,theywere sometimesacceptedintopriesthoodsbecause there
were nolawsprohibitingthem. The qualificationsformanypriestlyofficesalsochangedthroughoutthe
historyof Rome.Augurs(orpontifices) justneededtobe of freebirth,have Romancitizenship,andhave
no bodilydefects.However,certainpriesthoodslike flaminesandrex sacrorumrequiredpatricianstatus
to be such highlevel priests(Beard &North22). This showsthatthoughdifferentgroupsallowedlow-
classindividualstobe priestsorreligiousofficials,generally,the high-levelpriestsneededtobe inthe
richersocial class. The majorityof the plebeiansocial classwouldnothave beenable toexperience
priestlypositionslike the flaminesorrex sacrorum.
Similarly,the majorityof the Senate of Rome were upper-classmales.Aswe canalsosee from
Beard’swriting,the Senate playedalarge role inancientreligions:fromvotingonwhichmysterycultsto
be made official withinthe citytoif an oracle shouldbe consultedinthe eventof a prodigyoccurring
(Beard& North31). The Senate washighlyinfluential withinancientreligionandtheycontrolledmany
aspectsof it. Because there waslittle separationbetweenreligionandpolitics,withthe exceptionof
certainpriesthoodslike the rex sacrorum, manysenatorscouldhave alsobeenpriestsorreligious
officialsincertaincultsortemples(Beard &North24). Thisseverelyrestrictedthe lower-classbecause
theycouldalsonot experience the role of asenatorandcouldnot vote on religiousissues.Inaddition,
womencouldnotbe a part of the Senate sothere isanothergroupthat couldnot experience this job.
While the majorityof priestswere upper-classmales,thisdidnot meanthatwomenwere
necessarilylookeddownonwithinancientreligion.Itwasjustthatwomenandmenexperienced

3. differentthingswithincertainreligiouspractices. Certainthingswithinthe ancientGreekandRoman
religionwere differentformalesandfemales.Bremmerspeaksaboutthisinhisbook,“InAthensfour
girlsof noble families…livedonthe Acropolisforanumberof months…In AtticBrauron noble girls
stayedfora while as‘she-bears’inthe sanctuaryof Artemis…InCorinthsevenboysand sevengirlsof
the most prominentfamiliesspentayearin the temple of Hera…dressedinblackclothesandwith
close-croppedhair”(Bremmer69).Thisshowsusthat younggirlswere treateddifferentlythanyoung
boysand thistreatmentvariedfromcitytocity. Thisseparationof sexesfromayoungage couldhave
beenusedtoshowlittle girlsandlittle boysexactlyhow theyshouldactwithinthe ancientGreekor
Romanreligion.Forinstance,the girlsinAtticBrauronwouldpassthe time bydancing,running,and
weaving(the lastone beingastandardpractice for womeninthattime).However,certaincitieswould
require boystogo throughdifferentinitiationritestobecome aman,whichoftentimesinvolved
bloodshedorsome kindof violence (Bremmer70).Froman earlyage,childrenothercitieswouldbe
taught theirgenderrolesthroughtheirreligion.Asshowninthe quote above,thesechildrenwere
normallybornintonoble families,whichshowsthatlower-classchildrenwouldnotnecessarilybe given
thistreatment.Bylivinginthese templesfor alongperiodof time,childrenlearnedhow toproperly
worshipthe godsinthe way that theirgenderallowedthemto. Itwasnot onlychildrenwhohadspecific
rolesto fill,itwasalsothe adultsof families.Forinstance,the fatherwassupposedtobe the one who
was the religiousauthorityinthe house.Justlikenoble childrenwere expectedtodocertainthings,the
fatherfigure of the house wasexpectedtoperformcertainactslike beingthe priestof the family,
makingthe offerings,andperformingcertainritualsthatconcernedthe house. Menwere expectedto
do all of these things,thoughwomenwere notsupposedtobe the dominantreligiousfigure inthe
house (Mikalson133).Evenif the fatherhaddied,the eldestsonwouldtake overthisrole,notthe
mother.

4. It was alsoa commonideathat womenwere more susceptibletoimpurityandgivingbirth,one of
the mainrolesas a woman,was sometimeslinkedwithdefecatingandurinationasthe three important
tabooson sacredground.This sometimesgave people the ideathatwomenwere associatedwithdirtor
pollution(Bremmer71).Thiswasalsotrue withdifferentmedical treatments.Itshowsinthe
Hippocratictraditionthatonlyfemale patientswere purifiedwithexcrements(Bremmer71).Thisnotion
of uncleanlinessandimpurityweresometimeswhatkeptwomenfromtemples,especiallythoseof
certainmale godslike PoseidonorHeracles(72).
One of the mostgender-specificfestivalsinthe Greekcalendarwasthe Thesmophoriafestival.This
was an all-womenfestivalwhichspannedthree days,eachdayhavingameaning.The firstday,Andosor
Ascent,waswhere womenwouldgoupontoa specifichill andbuilthutswhere theywouldstay.The
bedswouldbe made withsupposedlyantaphrodisiacplantstoexpressanabsence of sexuality.Thisday
wouldbe aboutseclusionfromthe restof the worldand a lackof sexuality(Bremmer77).The nextday
was the NesteiaorFasting.Thisisthe day where womenjustsataboutwithoutthe usual flowery
garlandsthat theynormallywore.The lastday,Kelligeneia,waswhere the womengotdecayingremains
of pigletsfrompitsandplacedthemonaltarsas future manure.Thiswasabout fertilityof the landbut
alsoabout praisingthe goddessKalligeneia,whowas the goddessof birthinAthens(Bremmer77).This
isan example of womenworshippingdifferentlythanmen,inadditiontopraisingthe godsinaway that
mendidnot. There isalsoanotherexample of these ritualsinPausanias’ Description of Greece, where
he mentionstwowomenbringingdownobjectsfromAthena’spriestesstobringtoAphrodite’s
sanctuary.The fact thatit iswomengivingandtransportingthese objectsmakesall the difference,there
are little tonomen involvedinthistransaction. Menandwomenexperienceddifferentthingswithinthe
ancientGreekandRoman religions. However,thoughwe see certainfestivalslike the Thesmophoria
whichisspecificonlytowomen,thiswasnotnecessarilythe norm.In Aigale,we see evidence thatevery
personinthe city wasinvitedtocertainfestivals,“aprivate associationinvitedtoasacrifice and

5. banquetall the citizenspresentinAigale andall the local residentsandforeignersandanyRomans
present,includingthe women”(Cole 93).Thismeansthatwithinthiscity,there were specificfestivalsin
whicheveryone,evenwomenandthose of the lowerclass,couldattend.
Thoughthere wasa lotof inclusion,thereisalsoafair amountof exclusionwithwomen.
Sometimes,womenwerenotallowedincertaintemplesorshrinessimplybecausetheywere women.
Cole mentionsthisinhisbook,“Restrictionspostedinsanctuariesusedexpressionsthatmeanno
female allowed.Publicrulesdeployingexplicittechnical languagewere postedtoprotectmale
sanctuariesandmale rituals”(Cole 97).Inthisinstance,womenwere notallowedinthe shrinesand
otherholyplacesbecause itwasthoughtthat theywouldsomehow defile the male sanctuariesand
rituals.Womencouldnotexperience certaincultssuchasMithras (whostated,thatwomenwere
hyenasratherthan people (Beard,North,&Price 311)) or Heracles’cult.In the instance of the cultof
Heracles,there were,onoccasion,certainsignspostedoutsidethe cultentrance saying“ForHeraklesof
Thasosit isnot rightto offera goat or a piglet;anditisnot rightfor a womanto take part” (Cole 100).
Thisexclusionof womenwasdue tothe fact that the godHeracleswas an allegedmisogynistanddid
not like women(101).
The genderand classdistinctionwasespeciallyevidentwhenindividualswouldrequestthingsfrom
the gods or go to oracles. Withregardsto social classes,itwasverydifficultforsome lowerormiddle
classestogo to certainreligiousspacesinancient times.Thiswasbecause offeringswere expected
before one wenttocertainoraclesor shrinestoaska godfor something.Forinstance,if one wenttoan
oracle,itwas expectedthatanofferingwastobe giveneithertothe oracle or the god/goddess.
However,thiswouldbe verydifficultforthe lowerormiddle classindividualsbecause theymightnot
have as much to offerasan upperclass personwhocouldspare lavishgifts. Itisshownhere inNorth’s
article whenhe isdiscussingthe three war-declarationsinLivy’sfourth/fifthdecades,“Inthe beginning
of the consulshipof P.CorneliusScipio…before dealingwiththe issue of the provinces,orderedthe

6. consulstoperformsacrifices,usingthe largervictims…all the sacrificeswere favorable,the ceremony
was fulfilledwiththe firstsetof victims”(Beard&North62). The multiplelarge sacrificeswassomething
that people of the lowerclasscouldnotperformoracquire.Normally,thesekindsof sacrificeswouldbe
too expensiveortoocostly(with regardsto utilizationof the live animal ineverydaylife) forthe
plebeiantoafford.Therefore,we cansee thatitwouldbe difficultforlower-classindividualstogoto big
templesororaclessimplybecause of theirlackof expensive offerings.
While womenhadthe opportunitytobecome priestessesorcertainreligiousofficials,there was
alsoanothertitle thatcouldbe givento specificwomen:the title of euergetes.Thismeantthatwomen
were honorarymen,showingthatthese womenhadsignificantsocial andeconomicpowerwithina
certaingroup.For instance,awomannamedMenodorawas the wealthywomanwhogave the people
of Sillyonlarge giftsof moneyandcorn,300,000 drachmae to aidorphansand children,and304,000
drachmae for buildingatemple thatwasfurnishedwithstatuesmade of silverandotherlavishthings
(Beard& North229). She wouldhave beenconsideredaeuergete because of thisspecificdonationthat
she wouldhave made tothe people of Sillyon.Thismeantthatshe notonlywasan occupantof the
priesthoodthere,butthatshe wasverypious,bygivingthese giftsinhonorof the gods(Beard& North
230). Thisshowsus thatbeinga wealthywomancouldalsogive one differenttitlesthatwere higher
than ordinarypriestesses.
It was alsoassumedthatwomenwouldnotaskfor the same thingsof the gods that the menwould
ask for.For instance,basedoncertainevidence,we cansee thatsome womenwouldhave askedfor
thingssuchas the healthof a child,the wellbeingof theirhouse,andthe stabilityof theirfamily
(Morgan 302). Because womenwere incharge of the home andhearth,theywere expectedtoprayfor
the livesof the childrenandthe wellbeingof the home.Differentthingswere expectedof womeninthe
ancientreligions, notjustwithregardstohome and hearth.Forinstance,inthe cultof Isis,womenwere
expectedtogothroughdifferenttrialsandwere heldtodifferentstandardsthanmen.Juvenalmentions

7. thisinhis writingsand,thoughitisa satire,we can take from thisnarrative thatwomenwere expected
to go throughsome kindof physical trial anddeprivationaswell asseekingforgivenessfromcertain
officialsif she hadoffendedthe goddessIsis(Beard,North,&Price 302). Womenwere sometimesheld
to differentstandardsthanmenandexpectedtododifferentthings. Thisisalsotrue inOvid’sFasti IV,
he mentionsonApril 1st
a festival inwhichwomenhave toperformcertainritualsinordertoappease
Venus,“nowyoumustgive hernewflowers,new roses.She furtherdemandsthatyoube bathed
beneathgreenmyrtle”(Ovid138-139). Womenare expectedtoperforminthisfestival andgive certain
offeringswhile alsoperformingthisritual because itwaswhathappenedtothe goddess.
It isevidentwithin ourresearchandevidence fromthe pastthatthere wasa cleardistinction
betweenhowthose of differentgendersandsocial classesworshippedandperformedtheirrolesin
ancientreligions.We cansee fromevidence thatmanypriesthoodswere generallymale,thoughthey
couldbe females,andupper-classindividuals,thoughmanypriesthoodseventuallyopeneduptothe
lower-classaswell.Womenwere expectedtoaskfordifferentthingsthanmenwhentheywentto
oraclesor gave offeringstothe gods.Inaddition,there were alsomanygender-specificfestivalsthat
happenedwithinthe Roman/Greekcalendarinwhichdifferentritualswere enactedfordifferent
genders.Lastly,the ideathatbothgendersfromdifferentclasseswere raiseddifferently.Some wereto
be takento templesandshownhowtheyshouldbehave intheirgender-specificrole intheirreligion
and otherswere justtaughtbythe family.