Stem cells (Biotechnology)

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Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated. Under the right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to form more cells called daughter cells.

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content- Chemistry & Chemical Engineering History of Catalysis Catalysis Recent trends in Catalysis Future trends in Catalysis Summary role- 24% of GDP from Products made using catalysts (Food, Fuels, Clothes, Polymers, Drug, Agro-chemicals) > 90 % of petro refining & petrochemicals processes use catalysts 90 % of processes & 60 % of products in the chemical industry > 95% of pollution control technologies Catalysis in the production/use of alternate fuels (NG,DME, H2, Fuel Cells, biofuels…)

Applications of catalysis- Physical Chemistry

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Adsorption Adsorption versus absorption, Desorption Types of adsorption: Physisorption and Chemisorption Factors affecting adsorption Adsorption isotherms: Freundlich and Langmuir Gibbs adsorption isotherm Bet equation and its use in surface area determination Applications ADSORPTION Adsorption is the process in which matter is extracted from one phase and concentrated at the surface of a second phase. (Interface accumulation). This is a surface phenomenon as opposed to absorption where matter changes solution phase, e.g. gas transfer. This is demonstrated in the following schematic.

Type of adsorption- Pharmaeutical Physical Chemistry

Sanchit Dhankhar

Viruses of Prokaryotes: T4 phage M13 (General properties and structure,classification,reproduction) Viruses of Eukaryotes: Retrovirus Herpes simplex virus (Classification, reproduction ) Plant viruses: TMV (Morphology, taxonomy, and reproduction) Viroids and prions A virus is a non-cellular particle made up of genetic material and protein that can invade living cells.

Viruses- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Killing or removing all forms of microbial life (including endospores) in a material or an object. Mainly due to: oxidation of cell component, denature proteins, nucleic acids, RNA and loss of membrane permeability. Procedures performed in a way to prevent contamination with infectious microorganisms Used to prevent contamination of surgical instruments, medical personnel, and the patient during surgery Sanitization: Lowering of microbial counts to prevent transmission in public setting (e.g., restaurants & public rest rooms) Degerming: Mechanical removal of microbes from limited area. e.g., Alcohol swab on skin, washing of hands with soap Sepsis: Bacterial contamination Antisepsis: Reduction or Inhibition of microbes found on LIVING TISSUE

Sterilization- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Sterilization and disinfection- Phrmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Smear preparation: A drop of water is placed in the centre of a slide One loopfuls of organisms is transferred to the centre of slide Spread the organisms over the slide The smear is allowed to dry Slide is passed through flame several times to heat-kill and fix organisms A bacterial stain is stained with crystal violet (fuchsin, methylene blue) 1 min Observe under microscope Basic Dyes Methylene Blue Crystal Violet Carbol Fuchsin Safranin Malachite Green Acidic Dyes Picric Acid Nigrosin India Ink Eosin differrential statining Two or more reagents Distinguish Bacterial groups Specific Structures Example Gram stain Acid Fast Stain

Staining- Pharmaceutical MIcrobiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Poliomyelitis, often called polio is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. In about 0.5% of cases there is muscle weakness resulting in an inability to move. It may also be spread by food or water containing infected human feces & less commonly from infected saliva. Enterovirus (RNA) Three serotypes: 1, 2, 3 Rapidly inactivated by heat, formaldehyde, chlorine, ultraviolet light. Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). The World Health Organization recommends all children be vaccinated against polio. Polio vaccines are generally safe to give during pregnancy & in those cases who have HIV/AIDS .

Poliomyelitis vaccines- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed to offspring) May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and be passed to offspring Mutations happen regularly Almost all mutations are neutral Chemicals & UV radiation cause mutations Many mutations are repaired by enzymes Some type of skin cancers and leukemia result from somatic mutations Some mutations may improve an organism’s survival (beneficial) chromosome mutations= Five types exist: Deletion Inversion Translocation Nondisjunction Duplication

Mutations- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

The inhibition of growth under standardized conditions may be utilized for demonstrating the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics. Any subtle change in the antibiotic molecule which may not be detected by chemical methods will be revealed by a change in the antimicrobial activity and hence microbiological assays are very useful for resolving doubts regarding possible change in potency of antibiotics and their preparations. principle; The microbiological assay is based upon a comparison of the inhibition of growth of micro-organisms by measured concentration of the antibiotics to be examined with that produced by known concentrations of a standard preparation of the antibiotic having a known activity. Two general method are usually employed:- The cylinder-plate (or cup-plate) method. The turbidimetric (or tube assay) method.

Microbiological assays- Pharmacuetical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

The process of growing microorganisms in culture by taking bacteria from the infection site (in vivo or environment) and grow them in artificial environment in the laboratory (in vitro). Bacteria may require adequate nutrition, optimum pH, temperature and oxygen for growth and multiplication. Suitable artificial media containing sources of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous and other elements such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron and growth factor (Vitamins) in very small amounts have been used for cultivation of microorganism. When microorganisms are cultivated in the laboratory, a growth environment called a medium is used. The medium may be purely chemical (a chemically defined medium), or it may contain organic materials, or it may consist of living organisms such as fertilized eggs. Microorganisms growing in or on such a medium form a culture. A culture is considered a pure culture if only one type of organism is present and a mixed culture if populations of different organisms are present. When first used, the culture medium should be sterile, meaning that no form of life is present before inoculation with the microorganism.

Microbial cultivation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Types of Pathogenic Organisms Viruses Bacteria Protozoan Fungi Animal Parasites mecahnism Utilization of host nutritional resources Physical damage to host tissues Production of toxic substances Chromosomal and gene damage Body cells behave abnormally Antigens Some chemical that creates immune response Most are proteins or large polysaccharides from a foreign organism. Microbes: Capsules, cell walls, toxins, viral capsids, flagella, etc. Nonmicrobes : Pollen,, serum proteins, and surface molecules from transplanted tissue. Antigens Some chemical that creates immune response Most are proteins or large polysaccharides from a foreign organism. Microbes: Capsules, cell walls, toxins, viral capsids, flagella, etc. Nonmicrobes : Pollen,, serum proteins, and surface molecules from transplanted tissue. Skin acts as barrier to microbes and viruses - sweat has a low pH Mucus traps foreign particles Tears - Lysozyme has antimicrobial action Gastric stomach acid 2nd line of defence Phagocytic cells (WBCs) Natural Killer (NK) Cells: attack virus infected cells Inflammatory Response Antimicrobial proteins Lysozyme Interferon Antibodies

Immunity- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Scientific study of organisms (both eukaryotes and prokaryotes) and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms / microbes which is visible only with a microscope. Derived from the Greek word “mikros” - ‘small’ and “bios” - ‘life’. The diverse group of organisms includes algae, archae, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses. Most of the microorganisms are harmless. 99% are good. Eg: Cynobacteria (blue green algae) 1% are bad. Eg: Pathogens The belief in the spontaneous generation of life from nonliving matter was introduced by Aristotle, who lived around 350 BC. According to Aristotle, it was: “readily observable that aphids arise from the dew which falls on plants, fleas from putrid matter, mice from dirty hay.” This belief remained unchallenged for more than 2000 years. Formation of life from non living things- ABIOGENESIS. Aristotle suggested that flies and maggots developed from decaying organic matter. Epicuris suggested that worms and other animals originated from soil and manure by the action of sun and rain. Theory of Spontaneous generation was disproved by Francesco Redi,Lazzaro Spallanzani,Louis Pasteur and Theodore Schwann.They argued that life originated from “pre existing life only”-BIOGENESIS. Francesco Redi took 3 containers filled with meat particles.1st was kept unclosed,2nd covered with paper and 3rd was covered with cork or guaze.After inhibition the 1st container had maggot being produced because flies were attracted by the odour of the meat and they laid eggs after some days developed to maggots.2nd and 3rd container did not contain maggots. Theory of Spontaneous generation was disproved by Francesco Redi,Lazzaro Spallanzani,Louis Pasteur and Theodore Schwann.They argued that life originated from “pre existing life only”-BIOGENESIS. Francesco Redi took 3 containers filled with meat particles.1st was kept unclosed,2nd covered with paper and 3rd was covered with cork or guaze.After inhibition the 1st container had maggot being produced because flies were attracted by the odour of the meat and they laid eggs after some days developed to maggots.2nd and 3rd container did not contain maggots.

History of microbiology- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

DISINFECTANTS are chemical agents that inhibit or kill microorganisms (surgical apparatus, periphery of the patient, and the objects used by the patient). Disinfection It is the application of chemicals to destroy most pathogenic organisms on inanimate surfaces Can be accomplished by application of chemical agents, use of physical agents (ionizing radiation) dry or moist heat, superheated steam(autoclave, 120̊ C) idela surfactant effective at room temperature, noncorrosive and nontoxic, inexpensive, capable of killing the vegetative form of all pathogenic organisms, require limited time of exposure

Disinfectants- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

It is an antibiotic that was the first drug to be successful against tuberculosis but now it is used with other drugs because of its toxic effects othere uses Anti TB drug Plaque Veterinary treatment against gram negative bacteria in horses , cattle , sheep Fermentation is defined as chemical transformation of organic compound brought about through agency of microorganisms Microorganisms useful in fementation can be either prokaryotes such as bacteria , virus or eukaryotes such as fungi; yeast Test Organism-Streptomyces griseus

Streptomycin- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Penicillin is a antibiotic having β-lactum thiazolidine ring. Penicillin G is the starting material for 6-amino penicillanic acid which is the key intermediate in the production of wide range of semi synthetic penicillins. Mold used for the production of penicillin is Penicillium chrysogenum Penicillin is a antibiotic having β-lactum thiazolidine ring. Penicillin G is the starting material for 6-amino penicillanic acid which is the key intermediate in the production of wide range of semi synthetic penicillins. Mold used for the production of penicillin is Penicillium chrysogenum types of fermentation Basically ,there are two methods of preparation of penicillin by fermentation: Surface Culture Method: In this method mold is grown on the surface of shallow layers of the fermentation medium. Submerged Culture Method: In this method mold is grown submerged in the fermentation medium. master stock culture It can be preserved by Freeze drying Fixing on soil sand mixtures Storage under liquid nitrogen Second method is the best method

Penicillin fermentation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

The fermentation industry is composed of five major bio-ingredient categories. They are: - Proteins & amino acids. - Organic acids. - Antibiotics. - Enzymes. - Vitamins & hormones. Optimum balance of the media is mandatory for cells propagation and for the maximum production of target metabolite (end-product). Fermentation media Media compositions: - Carbon source. - Nitrogen source. - Minerals. - Growth factors. - Precursors (mutants). Types of fermentation Solid State fermentation (SSF). Liquid State fermentation (LSF) Surface culture & submerged culture

Microbial fermentation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

Introduction Mechanism of Heat Flow Conduction Heat Flow through a Cylinder-Conduction Conduction through fluids Convection Film type condensation Cold liquid-boiling of liquids Modes of Feed-Heat Transfer Thermal Radiation Black Body Grey body Equipments References 2.1 Heat Heat is a form of energy. According to the principle of thermodynamics whenever a physical or chemical transformation occurs heat flow into or leaves the system. A number of sources of heat are used for industrial scale operations steam and electric power is the chief sources to transfer heat. It is essential to cover steam without any loses to the apparatus in which it is used. The study of heat transfer processes helps in be signing the plant efficiently and economically 2.2 Heat Transfer:- Work is one of the basic modes of energy transfer in machines the action of force on a moving body is identified as work. The work is done by a force as it acts upon a body moving in the direction of the force. Work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and the surroundings work is said to be done by a system is the sole effect on things external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight. If a system has a non-adiabatic boundary its temperature is not independent of the temperature of the surroundings and for the system between the states 1 and 2 the work w depends on path and the differential d-w is inexact. The work depends on the terminal state 1 and 2 as well as non-adiabatic path connecting them. For consistency with the principle of conservation of energy. Some type of energy transfer must have occurred because of the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings and it is identified as heat thus when an effect in a system occurs solely as result of temperature difference between the system and some other system the process in which the effect occur shall be called a transfer of heat from the system at the higher temperature to the system at the lower temperature. 1.1 Evaporation 1.2 Distillation 1.3 Drying 1.4 Crystallization 1.5 Sterilization Application of Heat Transfer in Pharmaceuticals Industries

Heat transfer- Pharmaceutical Engineering

Sanchit Dhankhar

Measurement of flow‐ – Classification of flow meters, venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot tube, rotameter current flow meters Pressure measurement‐ Classification of manometers, simple manometer/ U tube manometer and modifications (Differential/inclined), Bourdon gauge Manometers are the devices used for measuring the pressure difference Different type of manometers are there they are Simple manometer Differential manometer Inclined manometer

Fluid and pressure measurements- Pharmaceutical Engineering

Sanchit Dhankhar

Fluid flow-Mention fluid properties such as viscosity, compressibility and surface tension of fluids. Hydrostatics (Fluidststics) influencing fluid flow. Fluid dynamics‐ Bernoulli’s theorem, flow of fluids in pipes, laminar and turbulent flow. A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases. Fluid flow may be defined as the flow of substances that do not permanently resist distortion The subject of fluid flow can be divided into fluid static's and fluid dynamics FLUID STATICS Consider a column of liquid with two openings Which are provided at the wall of the vessel at different height The rate of flow through these openings are different due to the pressure exerted at the different heights are different Consider a stationary column the pressure P is acting on the surface of the fluid, column is maintained at constant pressure by applying pressure The force acting below and above the point 1 are evaluated Substituting the force with pressure x area of cross section in the above equation

Flow of fluid- Pharmaceutical Engineering

Sanchit Dhankhar

Vitamin B-12 also known as cobalamine,is a water soluble vitamin with a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system Vitamin B-12 is important for the way of the body works, and the people who don’t have enough of it may feel tired or have a lack of energy. The first commercial production of vitaminb12 was as a by product of various Streptomyces antibiotic fermentations. Microbial production of vitamin B-12 consists of following steps:- Following media no. 1 is used:- Beet molasses -60g (NH4)2HPO4 -2g MgSO4.7H2O -1g MnSoO4.H2O -0.2g ZnSO4.7h20 -0.02g Na2MoO4.2H2O -0.005g Water q.s -1000ml pH adjusted to 7.5 (pH after sterilization 7.2-7.4) Media no-2:- Beet molasses -2500kg (NH4)HPO4 -128kg MgSO4.7H2O -64kg MnSO4.H2O -6.4kg ZnSO4.7H2O -640kg Na2MoO4.H2O -160kg CO(NO3)2.H2O -6.6kg Dimethyl-benzimidazole -1.8kg Water q.s -7200 US gal. RECOVERY:-Fermented broth is then harvested and vitamin B-12 is extracted from fermented broth. This yield acetone crystals, which are recrsytallized to pharmacopoeia grade vitamin B-12 using water as solvent .

Fermentation of Vitamin B-12- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sanchit Dhankhar

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Viruses- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sterilization- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sterilization and disinfection- Phrmaceutical Microbiology

Staining- Pharmaceutical MIcrobiology

Poliomyelitis vaccines- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Mutations- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Microbiological assays- Pharmacuetical Microbiology

Microbial cultivation- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Immunity- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

History of microbiology- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Disinfectants- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Streptomycin- Pharmaceutical Microbiology

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These are simplified slides discussing the regulation of cardiac output and venous return. Learning objectives: 1. Comprehend the determinants of cardiac output and factors affecting cardiac output 2. Comprehend the factors affecting stroke volume and heart rate and total peripheral resistance 3. Identify the factors regulating venous return 4. Discuss the causes of high and low output cardiac failure 5. Enlist the functions of veins and recognise the significance of venous reservoirs Study Resources: 1. Chapter 20, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition 2. Chapter 30 and 32, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition 3. Chapter 10, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition 4. Physiology, Cardiac Output - StatPearls https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470455/

Cardiac Output, Venous Return, and Their Regulation

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