2. 2
ABSTRACT
This report was based on a study of fresh water resources on an urban community (North
Camp) on Ebeye Island within Kwajalein atoll in the Republic of Marshall Islands (RMI). The
study examined the key problems, issues, future threats pertaining to freshwater resources in
the North Camp. The key findings noted were that the principal areas of concern for North
Camp relating to water resources were access to and use of safe drinking water, proper
sanitation and hygiene, the lack of basic community health/ life skills and education. The study
established that 30% of the North Camp residents were entirely dependent on the neighboring
USA military base for its supply of drinking water, contingent to whether a member (or more)
of the household works at the USA military base or not. About 30% and 20% of the residents
were dependent on rainwater and deionised water supplied by KAJUR (Kwajalein Atoll Joint
Utility Resource) respectively. Most of the residents do not access more than one drinking
water source. Despite major national policy directives and initiatives in water resources as
outlined in National documents little progress has materialized at the grassroots level. It is
recommended that structured policy implementation and the use of collaborative management
models involving stakeholder communities such as North Camp are fundamental to improving
water resource management on the island of Ebeye.
3. 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor and mentor Mr. Melchior
Mataki for his enduring assistance in the compilation of this document. I would also like to
recognize the wonderful people of Ebeye especially the North Camp community and the senior
class of Father Hacker Catholic High School 2006 who were my inspiration and to whom I
hereby dedicate this research to. And a special thanks to Bubu Nate im Juma Jiem and the
countless ri-majol many friends and the wonderful people of Queen of Peace Parish Ebeye who
were my family and friends during my two years on Ebeye and Gugeegue. Kommol nan Aolep!
4. 4
CONTENTS
Abstract ___________________________________________________________________________ 2
Acknowledgement___________________________________________________________________ 3
List of slides, figures and tables ________________________________________________________ 6
Abbreviations and acronyms___________________________________________________________ 7
Introduction________________________________________________________________________ 8
Freshwater on atolls ______________________________________________________________ 10
Aim and Objectives _________________________________________________________________ 11
Study Approach and Methodology _____________________________________________________ 11
Results___________________________________________________________________________ 12
Drinking water sources ____________________________________________________________ 12
Wells and boreholes ______________________________________________________________ 18
Discussion ________________________________________________________________________ 24
Key problem areas within the North Camp community with respect to various stakeholders _____ 24
Community life skills and Education ________________________________________________ 24
Proper sanitation, hygiene, basic health skills ________________________________________ 25
Access to clean, constant water supply on North Camp Ebeye ___________________________ 25
Water supply/community development AND HEALTH and education ________________________ 25
Relocation – communities and people ______________________________________________ 28
Pragmatic strategies for improved water resource use and management in north camp_________ 29
Infrastructure projects and sustainability ____________________________________________ 29
Stakeholders ____________________________________________________________________ 31
KAJUR: Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utility Resource_________________________________________ 33
RMIEPA: Republic of the Marshall Islands Environmental Protection Authority ______________ 33
5. 5
KADA: Kwajalein Atoll Development Agency _________________________________________ 35
Kwajalein Atoll Local Government: KALGOV__________________________________________ 36
Millennium Development Goals and water resources in the Marshall Islands __________________ 36
Freshwater resources and climate change _____________________________________________ 37
Nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands and poverty _______________________________________ 38
Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________ 39
Recommendations__________________________________________________________________ 40
Collaborative management model for North camp and Ebeye______________________________ 40
Normative decisions ____________________________________________________________ 42
Strategic level; legitimization and formulation ________________________________________ 42
Operational decisions: the implementation and evaluation process_______________________ 43
Bibliography_______________________________________________________________________ 43
Annex____________________________________________________________________________ 45
Annex 1: Map of Ebeye Island ______________________________________________________ 46
Annex 2: survey questionnaire ______________________________________________________ 47
Annex 3: RMIEPA strategic action plan 2004 – 2007_____________________________________ 48
Annex 4: chlorination procedures (RMIEPA-EBEYE)______________________________________ 51
6. 6
LIST OF SLIDES, FIGURES AND TABLES
Slide 1: A typical rainwater catchment, Ebeye................................................................................................... 14
Slide 2: A ferro cement water tank seen here at the Ebeye public school ........................................................... 15
Slide 3: Water catchments on Ebeye showing guttering and the use of water tanks to collect water.................... 15
Slide 4: Derelict rainwater collection tanks on northcamp, Ebeye....................................................................... 16
Slide 5: KAJUR SWRO water plant on Ebeye ..................................................................................................... 16
Slide 6: A small groundwater well located on Gugeegue Island.......................................................................... 20
Slide 7: RMIEPA office on Ebeye ...................................................................................................................... 20
Slide 8: Flooded alleyways alongside homes on north camp, Ebeye ................................................................... 21
Slide 9: A typical house on northcamp, with blue arrows inset showing guttering used to capture rainwater........ 23
Slide 10: Children in north camp, Ebeye ........................................................................................................... 28
Table 1: Research schedule for North Camp study ............................................................................................ 11
Table 2: Household distribution North Camp sample and KAHCB (2004) data..................................................... 13
Table 3: Complementary water use methods .................................................................................................... 14
Table 5: Key stakeholders/and issues in water resources, Ebeye........................................................................ 31
Table 6: SWRO water supply TESTS, 2001 (SOPAC).......................................................................................... 36
Table 7: Decision levels all stakeholders ........................................................................................................... 40
Figure 1: North camp survey drinking water sources (n=165)............................................................................ 13
Figure 2: Survey questions on water supply (north camp) ................................................................................. 17
Figure 3: Respondents poll on public water supply on north camp ..................................................................... 18
Figure 4: Survey data for supplementary water sources. ................................................................................... 19
Figure 5: North Camp survey results ................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 6: Key issues for north camp, Ebeye. ..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 7: Preconditions for development in the RMI. ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 8: EPPSO survey (2006) outlining major problems identified on Ebeye..................................................... 27
Figure 9: Coliform contaminated water sources on Majuro atoll (1995-2003)...................................................... 34
7. 7
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
MIMRA : Marshall Islands Marine Resource Authority
KAJUR : Kwajalein Atoll Joint Utility Resource
NTA : National Telecommunications Authority
MIVA : Marshall Islands Visitors Authority
USAKA : United States Army Kwajalein Atoll
RMIEPA : Republic of the Marshall Islands Environmental Protection Authority
MoH : Ministry of Health
KAHCB : Kwajalein Atoll Health Care Bureau
EPPSO : Economic Policy Planning and Statistics Office
MEC : Marshall’s Energy Company
UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
PIC : Pacific Island Country
RMI : Republic of the Marshall Islands
WHO : World Health Organization
KALGOV : Kwajalein Atoll Local Government
KADA : Kwajalein Atoll Development Agency
ENSO : El Nino Southern Oscillation
SOPAC : Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission
WHO : World Health Organization
8. 8
INTRODUCTION
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is composed of two major atoll chain systems; Ralik
(sunset) and Ratak (sunrise). The major urban centers in the Marshall Islands are Majuro and
Ebeye in Kwajalein atoll. The official languages are English and Marshallese. The Marshall
Islands was a trust territory under the United States during the early 1950’s. The RMI became
a republic in 1979 and later signed an agreement with the United States known as the
Compact of free association with the United States in 1982. This agreement gave the United
States certain control within the Marshall Islands constitution whilst maintaining the RMI’s
independence and autonomy. Scattered over an overall area of almost two million square
kilometers, the RMI are classed as low-lying atolls with an elevation of less than six meters
above sea level. The mean average rainfall for the Marshall Islands is approximately 12-15
millimeters per month (RMI Government, 2004). The natural resources on these islands are
scarce and susceptible to excessive extraction, poor management and environmental
degradation as a consequence of increasing population and urbanization. These factors make
atoll resources a challenge to manage and sustain.
(Source: www.mecrmi.net/RMI_Map.gif)
Ebeye Island or ‘Epje’ was renamed after a spelling error on American navigation maps in the
early 1900’s; it is traditionally known as the home to the paramount kings’ lesser common
9. 9
wives. (Lindborg, 1999) The island of Ebeye is part of a larger chain of islands, which make up
Kwajalein atoll. Ebeye has an area of roughly 0.36 square kilometers and a population of
approximately 10,000 people (EPPSO, 1999). Kwajalein atoll is of great interest due to its
strategic location in the northern Pacific. American forces reclaimed Kwajalein in 1944, from
the Japanese. The Marshallese on Kwajalein were relocated under Japanese occupation to the
island of Ebeye. The Americans then converted Kwajalein into a naval base, which is now the
site for the missile tracking defense system for the US army. Kwajalein today is a military base,
and employs up to 50% of Ebeye’s Marshallese population (EPPSO, 2006). Ebeye today is a
growing urban center, with a mixed population of Marshallese, Filipinos, and other Pacific
islanders. The island was originally developed as a labor camp in the 50’s to house laborers
who worked on Kwajalein; the housing and water infrastructure that was initially developed
now grossly inadequate as consequence of increasing population and poor maintenance.
The availability and quality of land-based resources such as drinking water are being
constrained by rising population with in Ebeye as a result of natural population growth and
urbanization. In addition, poor water usage practices and infrequent maintenance of water
infrastructure also contribute to the water woes on the island. However, this is nearly
unavoidable because of the small land area and therefore the limited carrying capacity of the
land to provide resources. One of those important resources currently in limited quality and
quality is fresh water, which is sourced from a reticulated water supply, ground water (wells)
and rainwater. Water supplies (in RMI) are threatened by aging and poorly installed
infrastructure that results in water leaks of up to 70% from the reticulation system’ (SOPAC,
2001). These directly affect operations of various infrastructure systems on the island.
Consumers directly absorb the immediate impacts of these failing infrastructure systems.
Poorer communities are amongst some of the most vulnerable. The vulnerability of these
communities to the cumulative impacts of high populations has become a major concern. This
is a growing issue not only Ebeye but also in many other low-lying atolls in the Pacific region.
The North Camp (see Annex 1) which is the focal study area of this project is located on the
northern tip of Ebeye next to the solid waste dump. There are approximately 176 households
on North Camp and the population was estimated to be 900 in 2006 (EPSSO, 2006). The North
Camp represents one of the poorest housing areas on the island, and faces constant water
and sanitation challenges. The North camp community was selected as the case study area for
this study because the socioeconomic issues in North Camp captured the overall situation on
Ebeye. The communities’ location in close proximity to the landfill raises sanitation and
environmental issues; part of North Camp currently is located on reclaimed land area. As
mentioned earlier, smaller impoverished communities with poor amenities and facilities are
more vulnerable and susceptible to environmental stressors which in turn make natural
resource management a challenge.
This research paper examined the fresh water management and utilization issues in an urban
community (North Camp) on a low-lying atoll, where fresh water is a scarce commodity.
10. 10
FRESHWATER ON ATOLLS
Freshwater sources are often categorized as either conventional or non-conventional.
Conventional water sources are those water resources that are obtained through non-
mechanical methods; non-conventional water sources are those, in which water is acquired by
some mechanical means. This could be through a desalinization plant or pumps into boreholes.
In the case of Ebeye and on North Camp water resources are obtained through both
conventional and non-conventional sources.
Conventional freshwater resources on islands as small as Ebeye is most common as almost all
homes participate on some level to collect water harvested from rainfall through catchment
systems. Water in the form of rain is collected by placing guttering onto roofing structure
which collects into containers, usually buckets, and drums or in some cases large underground
cisterns where water can be retrieved for later use. With household catchment collection
systems like Ferro cement tanks water is usually retrieved by use of a bucket attached to a
rope. With other larger cisterns a pump may be used to draw water.
In drier islands of the north Pacific and in Ebeye complementary water use systems work best,
where water collected from different sources. Water is used for different purposes depending
on its quality. A major component in the management of freshwater resources on Ebeye
remains under the control of administrative authorities that oversee both national and local
government infrastructure systems. It is this concept of national and local bodies of
government which create bottlenecks to the capacity and efficiency of utilities on the island.
Ebeye due to its location from the capital Majuro and population size has both local and
national government components with links to the national government (RMI government).
The Kwajalein Atoll Local Government (KALGOV) composed of a council; it forms the
administrative bodies that exercise significant influence on the overall efficiency of water
management on Ebeye.
Non-conventional freshwater resources on Ebeye are obtained through either desalinization of
water from the reverse osmosis plant or from public standpipes on USAKA and Ebeye. The
public standpipes on Ebeye are called the ‘Oasis’. The reverse osmosis plant on Ebeye that has
been functional since 2001 uses water that is high in mineral salts pumped through a
membrane at high pressures to separate freshwater from saltwater. The efficiency of this
process is dependent on the chemistry of the water being passed through the membrane
filters. Desalinization plants that were initially set up at the KAJUR power plant site has since
fallen into disrepair due to a lack of qualified personnel and various maintenance issues. High
costs involved in obtaining spare parts were also a challenge for this system.
This study examined some of the key issues in water resources management and utilization
that affected a particular community (North Camp) on Ebeye. It was envisaged that a careful
examination of these issues will form the basis for improved water management in North
Camp and lessons learnt might be applied to other urban communities on Ebeye.
11. 11
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this project is to investigate and analyze the key problems, issues and future
threats pertaining to freshwater resources in the North Camp. Based on the findings of the
investigation, certain management strategies will be proposed to improve water resource
availability and quality at the household level. The specific research objectives are as follows:
i. Outline the key problem areas within the community with respect to various
stakeholders.
ii. Define the implications of water supply on community development with respect to
health and education.
iii. Propose strategies for improved water resource use and management in the identified
community of North Camp, which are practical and ‘do-able’.
STUDY APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
A case study approach was adopted in this project, where the community of North Camp was
selected out of the 11 communities on the island of Ebeye. The case study approach was
taken because it allowed the author to focus on a manageable sample and relate the issues to
the rest of the island.
A two-pronged methodology was employed to gather data and information,
(i) A literature based appraisal of relevant publications and technical reports,
(ii) A field-based survey through the use of questionnaire and interviews with key
informants.
The field-based survey results will form the basis of this report and findings from the literature
were used to augment and compliment the field results and discussion. The population in the
North Camp was estimated at about 1000 and it consisted of 176 households. The
questionnaire (see Annex 2) was distributed to and completed by 165 households. The
respondents were mainly adults present at home during the survey. Table 1 outlines the
schedule used for field-based data and information gathering in this project. The North Camp
community was selected for this study due to the living conditions in the community and the
various issues affecting the community specifically on water resources.
TABLE 1: RESEARCH SCHEDULE FOR NORTH CAMP STUDY
12. 12
Activity Objective Timeframe
Data collection
(questionnaires – Ebeye)
Collect basic data from questionnaires Jan-Feb 2006
Interviews (Ebeye &
Majuro)
Confirm related information for the study;
identify other relevant issues for the
communities
June-July 2006
Photographs Background evidence of Ebeye situation October 2005-
July 2006
RESULTS
DRINKING WATER SOURCES
Figure 1 shows the disaggregated sources of drinking water available to the community in the
North Camp. The 3 main sources of drinking water identified following the field survey are:
i. USAKA – piped chlorinated water (30%)
ii. Rainwater catchments – treated and untreated water (29%)
iii. KAJUR – municipal chlorinated water supply (20%)
Sources (i) and (iii) are from desalination plants operated by the US military base and a Public
Power Company on Kwajalein and Ebeye respectively. Water from these sources is also
chlorinated. Water sources especially that of rainwater catchments are most often chlorinated
under ad hoc conditions and more often than not will contain water that is either chlorinated
poorly or even over chlorinated as a precaution. Water from source 3 is supplied at a flat rate
of $US25 per month per water connection, whilst water from source 1 is obtained at no direct
cost to the workers.
The USAKA water source is exclusively available to Ebeye residents working on the US military
base located on Kwajalein. These workers cart water in containers from the military base on a
daily basis. Thirty percent of the population sampled in the survey depended on this source,
indicating the importance of the military base for their drinking water needs and livelihoods.
Twenty nine percent of residents are dependent on rain water harvesting for drinking water
and twenty percent are connected to the KAJUR reticulated system. Other minor sources
include rainwater harvested from the roofs of the Marshall Islands Marine Resource Authority
(MIMRA) and National Telecommunications Authority (NTA) buildings and bottled water
obtained from shops. The identified water sources after the field work indicated similarities to
a survey carried out by Kwajalein Atoll Health Care Bureau (KAHCB) in 2004 for the Ebeye
population (See Table 2), suggesting that the major sources have not changed since 2004.
Data illustrated in Figure 1 show 1% of respondents used bottled water for drinking water
however; upon close examination these people use other water sources.
13. 13
FIGURE 1: NORTH CAMP SURVEY DRINKING WATER SOURCES (N=165)
TABLE 2: HOUSEHOLD DISTRIBUTION NORTH CAMP SAMPLE AND KAHCB (2004) DATA.
Sources of drinking water (n=945) Frequency Percentage
of Ebeye
population
*North Camp
sample (n=165)
Rainwater catchments 237 25.08 29
Public pipe water outside dwelling 26 2.75 Nil
Public pipe water inside dwelling 6 0.63 20
Bottled water 19 2.01 1
Well/ rain water/other 7 0.74 35
Others (USAKA) 192 20.32 30
Rainwater catchments + others 370 39.15 16
Public pipe water + others 56 5.93 4
Bottled water +others 32 3.39 Nil
(Source: 2004 KAHCB Household survey Ebeye and survey data)
It is noted that less than 10% of the North Camp population used two or more water sources
for drinking purposes. This can be a limitation during dry periods or water shortages. Past
records also indicate water pump failures at the desalination plant are also quite common.
North Camp is predominantly associated with the poorer and working class community living
mostly in “squatter type” of housing with limited access to public amenities. There are certain
locations in North Camp where public standpipes have been erected in the past for residents
14. 14
to freely withdraw water from during pumping times at the water plant (KAJUR). This practice
had discontinued because of the lack of maintenance and vandalized standpipes. At the time
of this research people were buying water from the main water plant. The ‘Oasis’, is now the
only public standpipe area, where residents obtain their water from. However, a 2 gallon bottle
of water would cost on average around $US2.59 if purchased from supermarkets on Ebeye.
KAJUR water on Ebeye is pumped only three times a week for a period of 4-5 hours. While
water on Kwajalein is open 24 hours free of charge to its workers. Heightened security
protocols at the base sometimes limit the access of workers to water.
SLIDE 1: A TYPICAL RAINWATER CATCHMENT, EBEYE
Twenty nine percent of the sampled population depended on rainwater as their major source
of drinking water. Rainwater is captured and stored in Ferro-cement and metallic tanks, 200
liter drums (fuel drums) and other containers for later use. The rain water harvesting systems
vary from basic roof gutters to more elaborate setups depicted in Slides 1 and 2. As compared
to collecting rainwater from the roofs of homes it is easier for Kwajalein workers to fill water
containers after work. As such, only 8% of workers from Kwajalein also practice rainwater
harvesting, and 2% are connected to the KAJUR reticulated system.
TABLE 3: COMPLEMENTARY WATER USE METHODS
Water collection
method
Use.
Rainwater from catchments Washing and cleaning, bathing etc.
15. 15
Piped water (KAJUR etc) Drinking (at times), washing, bathing, cleaning, and
cooking.
USAKA water Drinking, cooking.
SLIDE 2: A FERRO CEMENT WATER TANK SEEN HERE AT THE EBEYE PUBLIC SCHOOL
SLIDE 3: WATER CATCHMENTS ON EBEYE SHOWING GUTTERING AND THE USE OF WATER TANKS TO COLLECT
WATER
The tank seen here in slide 3 shows a small straining device used to remove any foreign debris
and other particles from the roof. During the American administration in the early 70’s a large
water catchment system was setup along with some small housing facilities in what is now
North Camp. These facilities still exist but are no longer in use because of disrepair (see Slide
4).
16. 16
SLIDE 4: DERELICT RAINWATER COLLECTION TANKS ON NORTHCAMP, EBEYE
KAJUR’s reverse osmosis plant use seawater directly. Water supply during the time of this
study was on an intermittent basis and water was being pumped three times a week for a
period of 4 -5 hours due to an ongoing power situation on Ebeye. This situation has raised
many concerns over the safety and water quality of the supplied water from the SWRO plant.
SLIDE 5: KAJUR SWRO WATER PLANT ON EBEYE
17. 17
FIGURE 2: SURVEY QUESTIONS ON WATER SUPPLY (NORTH CAMP)
The data displayed in Figures 2 and 3 are an important indicator of public attitude towards the
municipal water supply by KAJUR. A third of the population had almost no access to a piped
water source (33%) while 77% said that water on Ebeye was not safe enough to drink,
although about 23% of the respondents perceived KAJUR to be safe for drinking. This poor
perception of the public water supply was influenced in part after an outbreak of cholera in
late 2000 to early 2001. Water tests by plant operators test only residual chlorine at the plant
while EPA tests water for Coliform at source (from taps) and from surrounding coastal water at
selected sites (Malolo, 2006).
18. 18
FIGURE 3: RESPONDENTS POLL ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY ON NORTH CAMP
This public perception is quite important in terms of the utility (KAJUR) being able to sustain
itself financially in the future. If KAJUR can improve this public perception they are also likely
to improve some cost recovery efforts, and increase the sustainability of their current
operations.
Salty water in taps may be attributed to a number of reasons. The most likely being power
outages leading to seawater intrusion into the system. The fluctuating power situation may
have destabilized pressure in the water delivery system allowing foreign matter to enter the
system; filter membranes due to their high cost were changed only once a year (Jacklick,
2006). For the SWRO system to function properly water pressure within the pipes must be
maintained at a given range. This is not always the case as power outages are common, the
water plant is entirely dependent on lagoon side power and is subject to pump shutdowns
(Jacklick, 2006).
WELLS AND BOREHOLES
Due to the unique geomorphology of Ebeye, certain places on the island have been able to
access the water lens and as a result some homes (0.74%) were using wells as their drinking
source during water shortages on island. This practice has been discouraged due to heavy
contamination of the water table over the past years. Nevertheless this practice has been
noted on some areas in North Camp. Studies by the RMIEPA indicate a clear link between
groundwater contaminations from seepage of home septic tanks; therefore the use of wells on
island and around dump areas poses great risk to human health (RMI Government, 2004).
19. 19
The freshwater lens is also easily affected by salt-water intrusion from surrounding seawater,
which ultimately means they are also susceptible to sea level changes. (RMIEPA Majuro, 2004)
This vulnerability can also be taken in two fold as sea level rise slowly becomes an issue on
heavily populated islands this lens is also susceptible to groundwater infiltration from badly
managed sewerage tanks and exposed pipelines, as is in the case of Ebeye. People however
have been using well water to supplement some of their water needs. This practice increases
the risk and recurrence of events such as the cholera outbreak of 2000. The cholera strain
identified in the outbreak of 2000 on Ebeye can exist indefinitely in the environment.
Ebeye is almost entirely covered in paved streets, buildings and infrastructure which will
reduce the amount of water that is required to recharge the lens beneath the island. The small
amount that does penetrate past the topsoil layer would be expected to be minimal. This has
already become a problem on some of the smaller islands like on Santo Island within Kwajalein
where some planting pits have become salty and dry which cannot support plant life.
FIGURE 4: SURVEY DATA FOR SUPPLEMENTARY WATER SOURCES.
Data displayed in figure 4 shows both drinking and non-drinking water sources. As a general
rule people in the survey do not drink water obtained from underground wells.
20. 20
SLIDE 6: A SMALL GROUNDWATER WELL LOCATED ON GUGEEGUE ISLAND
This well seen here in slide 7 was found to be less than 7m in depth; this is an indicator of the
groundwater depth.
An observation of concern was the overflowing of sewer mains during heavy rainfall on most
streets of Ebeye during heavy rainfall. Power outages on island are of concern as mixing
between water and a sewer line does occur during periods of heavy rainfall.
SLIDE 7: RMIEPA OFFICE ON EBEYE
In the background is the Ebeye Hospital; the
flooded roads from heavy rains have covered
the sewer manholes (red arrow). The blue
arrow is the RMIEPA office and the Water
testing lab.
22. 22
FIGURE 5: NORTH CAMP SURVEY RESULTS
Data in Figure 5 strongly indicate that safe drinking water practices are usually ignored
regardless of the source; all drinking water is consumed without any form of secondary
treatment. The perception among respondents was that water from Kwajalein is safer
therefore there is no need to treat their drinking water again. Approximately a third of the
community experiences some form of piped water supply problems and yet more than half
ignore safe drinking water practices. Almost 90% of the North Camp community believes that
water from Kwajalein is safer than water on Ebeye. The high-risk behavior is an element of
concern. Issues like hygiene education are an important aspect as this community risks their
health by consuming water without any secondary treatment. Drinking water regardless of the
source in situations like north camp may have dire consequences should another outbreak of
cholera surface.
The North Camp area according to a survey conducted by the KAHCB household survey in
August 2004 registered 156 households in the area with 1288 people. This figure represents
15% of the population living here in this area. The data from this survey shows that this
number had increased to 165 households and no full count was taken of the number of people
in the area. Households within the study area are basically constructed from plywood material,
roofing iron and wood. Very few houses in the study are made of concrete; alongside the
dump area most of the homes here were RV trailers, similar to self-contained trailers.
23. 23
The average household size of each of the homes that were surveyed was around 10-15
people in a two-bedroom home with a small cooking area. Due to these overcrowded
conditions people in some of these home sleep in shifts with, day workers most of whom are
employed on the Military base sleep through the night with jobless occupants out on the
street. Because there is almost no vegetation on Ebeye, outdoor temperatures can reach as
high as 110°F so people usually come out in the afternoons and late in the evenings. There
are no schools in North Camp as most schools were located in the central Ebeye district, with
no major stores close by there were 2 bakeries and 5 smaller shops which sold basic food
items and 2 handicraft stores within the North Camp area.
There are approximately 7 elementary schools and 4 high schools on the island of Ebeye with
an additional 2 high schools located on the island of Gugeegue. The public school entrance
exam pass rate was 12% for the public school. A quarter of the people on Ebeye agree that
the quality of education on Ebeye is generally poor. During a recent test in 2005 by the
Ministry of Education only 15% of public school teachers (High School and Elementary) passed
the Marshall Islands English Literacy tests- MIELTS. Left inset is a picture of north camp from
the end of the northern end of the open dumpsite.
SLIDE 9: A TYPICAL HOUSE ON NORTHCAMP, WITH BLUE ARROWS INSET SHOWING GUTTERING USED TO CAPTURE
RAINWATER
24. 24
DISCUSSION
The following is a brief outline of the data collected in relation to the Ebeye situation and the
various issues at play in the community. The situation on Ebeye remains a sensitive one as
there is a great deal of ambiguity in the area of water resources on the island. However some
core problems that have been identified here are also central to resource management and the
municipal water supply enterprise.
KEY PROBLEM AREAS WITHIN THE NORTH CAMP COMMUNITY WITH RESPECT TO
VARIOUS STAKEHOLDERS
FIGURE 6: KEY ISSUES FOR NORTH CAMP, EBEYE.
Figure 6 indicates key stakeholders within the white bubbles while the key issues central to the
case study area are on the top of each major bubble.
COMMUNITY LIFE SKILLS AND EDUCATION
Figure 6 summarizes the main classes of water issues identified through the study. The core
problems here are the lack of community life skills and education. People often lack basic life
skills. When people are educated they become aware of the impact of their actions and
therefore share some responsibility of resources. In order to improve problems in relation to
water supply on North Camp it is important for communities to understand how basic
25. 25
problems in water sanitation and hygiene may impact whole communities in the long-term. All
stakeholders for example the communities, Department of Education, MoH, RMIEPA can
together design programs that are implemented at the community level that will increase
awareness of relevant issue and consequently bridge the information gaps by providing
practical health skills through education. Once this can be accomplished it will be easier for the
community to accept community projects in regard to sanitation and basic health skills.
PROPER SANITATION, HYGIENE, BASIC HEALTH SKILLS
Looking one step above the initial core problem the next attack level is the issue of sanitation,
hygiene and basic health skills. An obvious problem in North Camp is the sanitation crisis as
people continue to fish in a lagoon that is polluted by raw sewage, while the beachside on the
lagoon end of the island is where people defecate along the beach and on the rock wall. With
a basic lack of water there is a significant chance that people from North Camp run a high risk
to water borne infections such as Cholera, Dysentery, Diarrheal diseases and Typhoid. These
diseases have already been diagnosed by physicians at the KAHCB although a number of cases
go unreported (Milne, 2006). It was noted in this study that people were drinking untreated
water in disregard to the health risks involved. Figure 5 indicates that 23% of the respondents
exhibited this high risk behavior. However it was noted that in some circumstances, the
respondents did not have any other alternatives.
ACCESS TO CLEAN, CONSTANT WATER SUPPLY ON NORTH CAMP EBEYE
Access to clean and safe water is one of the main problems faced by the North Camp
community; however there are key issues underlying this problem as illustrated in Figure 6.
The RMIEPA strategic action plan 2004- 2007 (Annex 3) also identified this as a focus area for
action. However, recognizing the problem without targeted programs involving key
stakeholders may not be as useful in redressing the problem. This problem is common not
only to North Camp individuals but also to other residents on Ebeye. The magnitude of this
problem however is greater for the North Camp individuals as this community lacks the
capacity to improve their situation.
WATER SUPPLY/ COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH AND EDUCATION
In the North Camp situation there are obvious linkages between water supply and health. The
direct connection is that Water in sufficient quality and supply constitutes a basic human need.
During interviews it was noted that people especially school students do not attend school
when there are water supply problems. All sectors of society are dependent on a safe water
supply for basic survival, thus the importance of water cannot be stressed enough. The
relationship between community health and education is an intrinsic one as an educated
community would be better informed in making healthier choices on their welfare. Thus
programs initiated and implemented by Ministry of Health must have a focus on issues that are
relevant to the people in these communities. Currently the Ministry of Education’s curriculum
needs to be strictly implemented at the formal and non-formal education sector. Literacy rates
26. 26
are very poor and a great deal of programs can be best adapted to the Marshallese language
in order to ensure that information is reaching the community.
A summary report (EPPSO, 2006) identifies the ‘fundamental preconditions for development in
the Marshall Islands as:
FIGURE 7: PRECONDITIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE RMI.
On Ebeye the barriers to these ‘fundamental preconditions are obviously at a disadvantage
since these are the very services that are affected. Access to water supply with the survey
data indicates that less than 30% of the community is able to access running water on North
Camp.
These preconditions for development as stressed are also referred to in (RMI Government,
2004), as important focal points for the Marshall Islands. Clear correlation between these
preconditions and the core issues for North Camp identified in Figure 6 from the survey is
critical. Public infrastructure like the piped water supply on Ebeye and to North Camp is a
sector that can be identified according to Figure 7.
27. 27
FIGURE 8: EPPSO SURVEY (2006) OUTLINING MAJOR PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED ON EBEYE.
Figure 8 also typifies the problems identified in this study. This study identified water as one of
the critical issues for the people of North Camp because it directly relates to health and
sanitation. The relationship between water and power is one that cannot be ignored. Although
this was not directly obtained through the questionnaire, interviews and discussions with key
administrators and residents of North Camp further validates the dependence of all
communities on power. Therefore it would only be practical that future development projects
incorporate these community indicators as focal areas. According to the survey results and the
work completed through the interviews of key focal points involved in the study the following
have been ranked as the key areas of concern for the North Camp community:
1. Access to safe, constant supply of drinking water on island in the North Camp
community.
2. Safe and practical sanitation facilities available for public and private households.
3. Public Health standards in water, sanitation and hygiene.
4. Education and awareness in water and sanitation guidelines for small urban
communities.
Water and sanitation on the island has been an issue of much concern as Ebeye was in 2000
the site of a serious cholera outbreak. The source of the outbreak after a detailed investigation
by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (US) was through poorly transported water
containers from the military base on Kwajalein to Ebeye (Beatty, 2004). Although locals today
still believe that the outbreak originated from contaminated water sources on Ebeye. Poorly
stored water containers from Kwajalein to Ebeye were identified as the most probable
contamination source as water was transported in poorly sealed containers. Contamination
may have occurred enroute from the base to Ebeye. (Beatty, 2004)
28. 28
RELOCATION- COMMUNITIES AND PEOPLE
Ebeye’s local population trends over the years have increased almost exponentially as people
relocated away from their original island homes in search of “glamour” associated with urban
centers. Based on the interviews with people in North Camp, some of the reasons as to why
people move to Ebeye are as follows:
1. Access to the following key areas:
• Employment.
• Health.
• Education.
2. Family support, functions, national holidays (Christmas, Nuclear victim’s day,
Independence Day.)
3. Compensation claims are accessed easily, goods and services are readily available on
Ebeye compared to outer islands.
4. Most outer islands lack more ‘American’ goods and services.
Water resources on the island of Ebeye and North Camp have been directly influenced by its
population growth. As a result this has created challenges for the infrastructure and utilities
sector as the systems over the years have suffered wear and tear due to stress from wearing
parts.
SLIDE 10: CHILDREN IN NORTH CAMP, EBEYE
Mid corridor1
residents as a result live on Ebeye through compensation payments sourced
through KADA under the Land Use Agreement (LUA). This is basically compensation for the
use of their land as a result of the testing programs. These compensation payouts are sizable
1 These were people relocated from smaller islands within Kwajalein Atoll to allow for expansion of the missile testing
range. Mid‐corridor residents are compensated by the US military for the use of their land.
29. 29
amounts of money therefore people are drawn to spend and use their money in Ebeye where
it is of more use to them instead of returning to their home islands. Current demographic
trends still indicate a high internal migration from the rural, outer islands to the urban centers,
primarily for employment and access to better health and education services. This migration
pattern still continues to aggravate already overcrowded conditions of the major urban
centers.
PRAGMATIC STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVED WATER RESOURCE USE AND
MANAGEMENT IN NORTH CAMP
INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS AND SUSTAINABILITY
The solution for the situation of North Camp is therefore to relook at the North Camp
infrastructure system as a smaller unit connected to the wider municipal water system and
then propose a co-managed system, which involves only the utility provider and the
community.
Based on the information collected some recommendations would be
• These infrastructure developments on Ebeye and for the North Camp community would
most likely be a new piped water supply system for the community.
• An upgrade to the current communal toilets for households without toilets and an
improved sewer discharge system, including the possible relocation of the present dump
area outside of Ebeye to other neighboring islands on the causeway.
• Zoning measures for recreational and fishing zones.
For developing countries this situation especially in the water and sanitation sector are mostly
unsuccessful because of the poor understanding of the issues of impact and sustainability.
In Ebeye although both issues are equally as important when Carter examines impacts as:
• A clear understanding of the present water and sanitation problems faced by
communities.
• Identification of the potential benefits, which can be delivered by improved
infrastructure.
• Observation of the actual benefits experienced by consumers and users.
On the other hand sustainability is:
• A pragmatic definition of the concept (of ‘sustainability’)
• An understanding of the of the component elements for sustainability.
30. 30
FIGURE 9: SUSTAINABILITY CONCEPTS (CARTER, 1999)
Carter has divided the separate aspects of sustainability into its essential components. This
loop then becomes the ‘continued to work overtime’ definition of sustainability. In effect this
pattern is not difficult to identify with in the case of Ebeye and in particular the utilities sector
under KAJUR.
MOTIVATION
Motivation comes from within the community itself, the stakeholders must together decide that
they are all willing to do something about their current situation; other stakeholders may also
be involved. This motivation is the collective effort by the community that they are willing to
change their situation around through improved services. Motivation is one of the most
important phases in the cycle. The community must identify its immediate needs and may take
the necessary measures to achieve and satisfy these needs.
MAINTENANCE
Once the community is motivated and action plans are identified, the projects are initiated and
run; skilled/-trained personnel must maintain these. As a precaution, trained personnel should
share their skills and knowledge by training locals. Water operators and other technical
personnel must be sufficiently skilled to undertake in house training for junior and
apprenticeship trainees. Training and skills base are an important aspect but they must be
suited to the situation and adapted specifically for the community with respect to cultural and
social factors.
31. 31
COST RECOVERY
With the assistance of the government, cost recovery measures must be set up. These would
include real costs to the consumers, stakeholders, and the government. Cost recovery
measures may include trade off’s, subsidies etc for resource people, consumers and the
government.
CONTINUING SUPPORT
This continued support may be through the dissemination of information through reports,
presentations, and radio advertisements as to the progress of the various projects, upcoming
events for the public, school visits, youth participation- drama, skits etc. This support package
will enable the community to troubleshoot weaknesses in various sectors allowing feedback
and evaluation, which will impact motivation to further the sustainability cycle.
STAKEHOLDERS
The following are stakeholders within the context of this project and have varying roles and
responsibilities which indirectly/ directly impact on the management of freshwater resources.
TABLE 4: KEY STAKEHOLDERS/ AND ISSUES IN WATER RESOURCES, EBEYE.
Stakeholder Key issues (problems) Priority Proposed solutions
KAJUR • Power supply.
• Fuel issues.
• Essential services.
• Infrastructure for water,
sewerage.
• Management structure and
‘ideology’.
• High
• High
• High
• High
• High
• Improved management
strategies and focus on
services, cost recovery,
training etc.
• Refocus administrative models
within KAJUR and
stakeholders.
North Camp
community
• Intermittent water supply.
• Sanitation problems.
• Poverty/ socioeconomic
status.
• High • An improved water supply
system based on demand
Ministry of Health • Lack of public awareness,
community perception etc.
• High • Increased community focused
programs on sanitation.
KADA • Ambiguity and lack of
direction/leadership/
• Poor relationships with US
and RMI govt. and Kwajalein
landowners.
• Medium
High
• Improved relations between
RMI govt. and KADA.
• Consensus over the LUA 2.
32. 32
RMIEPA
RMIEPA
• Lack of legislation in
protection of water resources.
• Poor facilities and staffing at
Ebeye office, equipment and
surveillance data.
• High • Information and awareness
campaigns on water
resources, stewardship and
sanitation. (These can be
facilitated in collaboration with
MoH, and other partners.
Landowners • Lack of active participation in
the matters concerning water
resources on island.
• Poor leadership perspective
and ownership of resources.
• Medium
High
• Active community dialogue
with groups within
communities in assessing the
key issues vital to people.
KALGOV (Public
works)
• Lack of support/for
infrastructure and
maintenance.
• High • Active maintenance and
support with KAJUR, with
water and sewerage grid.
USAKA • Increased dependence on
USAKA for water.
• Low • Open and free access to water
sources and better
Mobil Oil • Discrepancies in oil and fuel
price concessions as
compared with MEC.
• Medium
High
• Improved trade agreements
with RMI govt, utilities and
MOBIL oil.
Ministry of
Education
• Poor curriculum on basic
health science programs
• High • More focus on marshallese
language syllabus on health
science.
• Direct sharing and exchange
with MoH, RMIEPA, etc on
school programs.
Donor/ technical
agencies (ADB,
SOPAC,
• Follow up and revision of
Ebeye aid based projects.
• Medium • Review and follow up of
infrastructure projects on
Ebeye.
• Technical aid and skills
transfer from NGO’s and
specialist partners.
33. 33
KAJUR: KWAJALEIN ATOLL JOINT UTILITY RESOURCE
The utility company manages the operation and maintenance of the following essential
services:
• Electricity to Ebeye via diesel generators.
• Potable water through a Reverse osmosis plant.
• Ebeye sewerage treatment plant.
KAJUR was established in the 1980’s as a standalone non-profit utility. KAJUR has in part been
in the midst of debate with KADA as to its proprietorship status. Further disagreements
between KADA and the RMI administration have halted much needed aid from reaching
KAJUR. The RMI government however, remains bound by the ADB loan that was used to help
construct certain upgrades to the water and power plants on the island. This makes certain
infrastructure within KAJUR government property.
KAJUR’s cost recovery measures are minimal as Ebeye has a small commercial base to draw
from and in a day recovers approximately $5200 USD while it continues to spend
approximately $8500 USD on fuel alone. These disparities will indeed impact the sustainability
cycle proposed
The power crisis for KAJUR and the RMI as a nation became further compounded as
international oil markets increased prices in fuel. Disparities in prices charged to MEC and the
fuel prices charged to KAJUR is also a major problem, with these discrepancies in prices
amounting to $30000 USD a month. There are only 2 functional generators that supply power;
therefore power is routed through either the lagoon or the ocean side alternators.
In terms of providing efficient service delivery KAJUR was slowly lagging behind barely
breaking even with its cost recovery from its metered customer base. The shifts in the power
supply meant that power was routed through the lagoon side of the island for a time period of
four hours and then a four hour break in which the ocean side of the island would be supplied
with power. The sewerage plant has not been functional since early 2000; waste is pumped
directly into the lagoon.
RMIEPA: REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY
The RMIEPA act of National Environment Protection Act (NEPA) was enacted in 1984 but the
authority was only established in 1987. The act simply put is too old for today’s standards.
There are a number of sections that require serious amendments.
34. 34
The RMIEPA organizational structure is divided into 4 principal sections:
• Education information and training.
• Water quality monitoring laboratory services.
• Coastal management and Geographical information services
• Environmental health and sanitation.
In 2003 in order for the RMI to stay on track with their Multi lateral Environmental Agreements
(MEA’s) established the Office of Environmental Policy and Planning Center. This department is
responsible for formulating national policy on matters concerning the environment.
At the time of this research there remained no definite National Water Policy for the Marshall
Islands. Matters concerning water and sanitation were being handled with the kind assistance
of the chief water quality lab officer, Mr. Abraham Hicking on Majuro.
FIGURE 10: COLIFORM CONTAMINATED WATER SOURCES ON MAJURO ATOLL (1995-2003).
Source: (RMI Government, 2004)
Statistics from figure 9 are based on data obtained through the RMIEPA survey team, the
findings of these results were based on data from Majuro and offers an explanation as to the
seriousness of water supply problems in the RMI in general, the results shown here are
indicative of the problems people have in maintaining their catchments and monitoring the
possible sources of contamination or cross contamination of any water sources.
35. 35
The RMIEPA has published notices on treatment procedures for water tanks using chlorination
with a household detergent ‘CLOROX’ in order to treat water before drinking. Only 50% of
people in Ebeye however treat their water before drinking using any method (EPPSO, 2006). It
should be noted from Figure 10 that Coastal water and well water contaminations are almost
identical. This may be attributed to the Ghyben Herzberg lens model. Water catchments are
the most contaminated of all water sources. This is an alarming trend considering the fact that
the communities depend on them for water supply. Community based monitoring programs on
an urban scale should change the way in which people and communities are empowered into
managing their own water resources, offering hope for the future. (Hicking, 2006)
The RMIEPA strategic action plan 2004- 2007 (see annex 4) however is a relatively
comprehensive document that covers in its strategic Program Area A: Environmental Health
and Water Quality clear guidelines for an improved quality in the water supply on both Majuro
and Ebeye, although much of this requires active commitment on for EPA officers based on
Ebeye.
KADA: KWAJALEIN ATOLL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
With the population crisis of the late 1980’s Ebeye local government and traditional leaders
created the Kwajalein Atoll Development Authority (KADA) to deal with development issues
within the atoll with particular focus on Ebeye. KADA obtains a major part of its funding from
the Land Use Agreement of 1982 over the use of Kwajalein and funds are specifically diverted
to assist the people of Kwajalein in terms of social and economic impacts incurred by the
United States for the use of their islands. To date there is currently USD$5.8 million available
for use by KADA. One of the primary aims of KADA is to identify the needs of the people of
Kwajalein atoll and create working solutions to redress these issues.
An expansion project by KADA to construct a causeway, which would link 4 smaller islands to
Ebeye, was part of the authority’s plans to increase the available space for people on Ebeye.
Although the relocation option has been available for people on Ebeye, decentralization of
major infrastructure and public services have not been made readily available on these islands
and as a consequence, people prefer to dwell on Ebeye.
To date the relocation project by KADA has had minimal success. Only as much as 3.3% of
Ebeye’s population lives outside of Ebeye on these islands (KAHCB Community outreach team,
2004).
The problem of overcrowding has reached such proportions that in some households there
may be as many as 15+ people in a two room dwelling; it is not uncommon for people in
some households to sleep in shifts. Consequences incurred to the natural environment and the
infrastructure systems that manage these populations are an important reason for this study.
KADA however remains an integral player in the overall development of Ebeye as an urban
center. Although KADA has been dissolved, its committee still has vested interests in the atoll,
36. 36
in terms of its assets and other properties. Since its dissolution as well compact funding has
been set aside until KADA reactivates its committee.
KWAJALEIN ATOLL LOCAL GOVERNMENT: KALGOV
A challenge as is always the case with state run agencies are the ‘bureaucracies’ which are
defined by “…developing countries tend to be rigid in their structures, staffing rules and
procedures, as well as providing inadequate remuneration to their staff.” (Carter, 1999)
The Kwajalein atoll local government is the local government administrator for Kwajalein atoll,
which takes care of national government administration on the atoll as it were. The standoff
between KAJUR and KALGOV is an immediate consequence of the governments’ stance over
the debate between Kwajalein traditional leaders and the landowners over the LUA agreement.
The local government under the mayor receives various directives from the national
government; the local government was initially tasked with maintaining the power, water and
sewer supply until KAJUR was set up to oversee these utility sectors. Since KAJUR has been
set up there has been almost minimal interaction between KAJUR and KALGOV. KALGOV
remains an important partner in the management of water resources; it can be more actively
involved in supporting operational maintenance works for the currently defunct sewer plant,
water mains and delivery systems for the municipal water and sewerage plants.
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND WATER RESOURCES IN THE MARSHALL
ISLANDS
The MDG targets 92
and 103
are pertinent to the issue of water in North Camp. Government
policy has the power to action in smaller communities like North Camp where all stakeholders
participate equally. The section of North Camp community with access to safe drinking water
has only 79% of the population (aggregated totals from Figure 1). If these targets are to
become a reality they must be clearly implemented at the community level through community
health schemes and programs.
The results of Table 6 indicate the sanitation risks involved in the North Camp community
where the lagoon area is clearly contaminated with pathogenic bacteria most likely from raw
sewage from the outflow pipes off the North Camp Lagoon.
TABLE 5: SWRO WATER SUPPLY TESTS, 2001 (SOPAC)
2
Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of
environmental resources
3
Target 10: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
37. 37
Source: (Bower, R & Overmars, M., 2001)
FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
‘Given the precarious state of the island’s hydrological systems, climate change or protracted
anomalous conditions can have extreme effects on water supply’ (Shea, 2001)
With a growing concern in the scientific community, climate change and its related impacts are
fast becoming an issue of contention amongst growing SIDS as more and more evidence is
fast becoming available to support the validity of the idea that our climate and our
anthropogenic activities are affecting the planets resilience. The islands of the Marshall Islands
are classified in general as low lying atolls with an elevation above sea level around two
meters (RMIEPA Majuro, 2004). This leaves little to the imagination when one envisions the
impact these islands may well face in the light of climate change and more importantly sea
level rise in the future.
Many researchers have forecasted that climate change scenarios especially with respect to sea
level rise will lead to the saltwater intrusion into the water lens. This would be most
pronounced in the cases where small islands utilize the water lenses to draw drinking water.
(Watson, 1998) These types of impacts will soon become more of a commonplace as the
threat of sea level rise looms over pacific island nations. Although the immediate impacts
would be felt in terms of water supply on these islands the threat that they pose to the various
subsistence root crops are more significant as the soils become infertile from increased saline
conditions (Schefter, 1997).
In the case of Ebeye a large portion of the land has been cleared to make room for housing
and infrastructure and there is almost no dependence on locally grown vegetables and root
crops except for some pandanus and breadfruit. Currently only 10% of the population relies
primarily on local sources of protein with 9% on local fruit and vegetables with the larger 81%
majority almost entirely dependent upon imported food products. This figure is the highest
dependency rate for any island in the RMI on imported food products (EPPSO, 2006).
38. 38
The Marshall Islands almost complete dependence upon rainwater for drinking water makes
the RMI vulnerable to climate change. The drought of 1998-1999 in which the Marshall
Islands declared a state of national emergency saw water transported via barges from USAKA
on a daily basis. Ebeye until today remains on its way to recovery from these climate events
and the practice of taking water from USAKA is still practiced. Families often bring containers
to USAKA to await their working relatives on Kwajalein in the evenings.
The Marshall Islands recognizes in its: “initial communication under the UNFCCC September
2000” that there are essentially 5 sectors of key interest that will be primary focal points. At
the top of this list are water resources. (UNFCCC RMI- 2000)
“Pacific islands share a general reliance on rain fed sources of freshwater, this makes pacific
islands particularly sensitive to climate extremes like prolonged drought.” (Shea, 2001) During
the drought period of the late 90’s more than 40 atolls of Micronesia declared a national state
of emergency included were the Marshall Islands. (Tutangata, 2000) On Ebeye scarce water
supplies were supplemented with water from the military base on Kwajalein that was
transported by a barge on a daily basis and water rationing was a common practice. Large
barges would transport water, which was pumped into trucks and distributed around Ebeye.
NUCLEAR TESTS IN THE MARSHALL ISLANDS AND POVERTY
A large number of atoll evacuees from irradiated atolls have made their homes on Ebeye some
of whom as a result live in poor conditions. The North Camp community is composed mainly of
squatter type housing for poorer families.
(Yamada, 2006) Identifies ‘US strategic policies of maintaining global military superiority,
manifested by the development of a nuclear arsenal in the post-World War II period as the
fundamental cause of the conditions under which the people of the Marshall Islands live.’
In Ebeye statistics show that 78% of people were beneath the poverty line using American
poverty thresholds these trends are similar to those of Majuro and Jaluit (EPPSO, 2006). The
report identified 66% people agreed that alcohol and drugs were serious issues relevant today
in Ebeye. The unemployment rate on Ebeye was approximately 33% and the labor force
participation rate was 44.3%. Approximately 50% of the employed population was made up of
workers on the military base; most workers depend on USAKA for water.
The eco-social study (Yamada, 2006) has made very important correlations between social
issues of marginalized people on Ebeye. The study concluded that the outbreak of cholera in
2001 was the biologic embodiment of differentials in political power, disparate economic
conditions and ecological imbalance’ this conclusion serves as an epiphany as there are so
many social disparities between life on Ebeye and on Kwajalein. Poverty on Ebeye has reached
the extent that it has resulted in unhygienic and unsanitary living conditions. Poverty and
social differentials as those uncovered as a result of the research on North Camp are
confirmation of this and the dangers involved in improper sanitation coupled with poor water
supply for people of Ebeye.
39. 39
CONCLUSION
The main water issues for the community studied (North Camp) were categorized into three
main groups (i) access to and use of safe drinking water, (ii) proper sanitation, hygiene and
basic health skills and (iii) community life skills and education. Improper maintenance of
rainwater catchments was cited as important since a clear 50% of respondents were
dependent either entirely or in part on rainwater catchments for their drinking water. A third
(30%) of the north camp community is almost entirely reliant on USAKA for most of their
drinking water; making USAKA an important water source. Infrastructure review in light of
strong demands in freshwater resources is a very important step to improving water supply on
North Camp and for Ebeye this would also include a review to the waste treatment plant. Key
priority areas identified in this study include: Water and sanitation, access, Education (forma/
non-formal), EPA legislation/ policy on water resources, Energy and power.
Communities like North Camp are often more vulnerable to poor water supply problems as
they do not have the capacity to manage their water resources. Hygienic drinking water
practices like boiling/ chemical disinfection of drinking water in the case of North Camp need
to be encouraged more. The infrastructure system for water and sewerage currently on Ebeye
is in need of a review in order to safeguard risks to public health.
The management of utilities company KAJUR sector requires a multi-stakeholder approach
with a holistic emphasis on utilities for the public. Bureaucratic administration barriers from
private and state run agencies affect the efficiency and autonomy of the utilities sector;
therefore more interco-operative effort/commitment from all stakeholders is an essential
component to the collaborative approach recommended for Ebeye. Improved dissemination of
public health messages is crucial especially in urban communities like north camp. The cultural
component must be considered in program design.
The proposed climate change related shifts in the next decade would become a significant
impact on threatened water resources on Ebeye, a factor that will soon dominate much of the
resource management efforts/ initiatives in the SIDS and indeed in the Marshall Islands.
Proposed measures to mitigate these impacts would be the application of a ‘collaborative
management model’ as adapted from (Carter, 1999).
Alternative sources of energy should be further explored in order to sustain the increased
demands in power for Ebeye. Solar and wind energy projects on Ailinglaplap show great
promise on outer island communities, are these solutions practical in urban centers like Ebeye.
Communities like north camp remain an important sector in the Ebeye community, as these
communities are sensitive to economic, environmental and social changes. Due to this intrinsic
vulnerability the impacts of water resources are best captured in these smaller urban
communities, which makes communities like north camp a type of ‘thermometer’ to gauge
impacts to and vulnerability of water resources on Ebeye. Lowered resilience to change is
partly due to the innate lack of capacity for these communities to improve their situations. This
situation makes north camp an easier indicator of change and impacts. The ramifications of
40. 40
climate change are only today being acknowledged by larger nations but the initial ripples are
already being felt today in small urban centers like Ebeye.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the data collected and the situation on the ground on Ebeye the significant
recommendations here are that all the identified stakeholders. As a collective unit decisions
are reached together considering the viewpoints of all other stakeholders then auctioned
collectively. KAJUR the principal utilities provider through the help of traditional leaders on
Ebeye can prompt some action for change. The power and leadership dynamics on Ebeye are
such that a large factor that determines success for various development projects requires an
endorsement by the Iroij or traditional leaders. Therefore it would be crucial that their input be
considered for success of community projects. Therefore on Ebeye it is recommended that
collaborative efforts considered as an option for resource management projects.
COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR NORTH CAMP AND EBEYE
In communities like Ebeye the decision making process is often top-down. It is important for
all decision makers to realize the importance of community participation to this decision
making process. Stakeholders especially planning departments like the OEPPC must have more
consultative processes when deciding to use certain policy initiatives and aims. However as is
often the case, communities like North Camp lacks the necessary capacity to sustainably
manage their resources. The decision model can prioritize evaluation and monitoring as
important cornerstones when stakeholders meet and discuss issues on water supply. The
decision model should also be focused and adaptive
An environmental decision is formed in a 4-step process outlined by the following processes.
(Arms, 1990)
1. Gather information.
2. Consider values.
3. Explore consequences.
4. Make a decision.
Adapting the use of a collaborative framework which applies key steps in making
environmental decisions (Arms, 1990) would be the ideal system for community resource
management on communities like Ebeye and importantly on North Camp. The following is a
list of all stakeholders and the various decisions needed at each level.
TABLE 6: DECISION LEVELS ALL STAKEHOLDERS
Stakeholders Decisions
41. 41
Normative (what ought
to be done)
Strategic (legitimization/
formulation)
Operational (implementation/
evaluation)
KAJUR • Improve water
supply to Ebeye
residents.
• Improve current
infrastructure for
water and
sewerage.
• Review existing
policy to reflect the
proposed
commitments in
improved water
supply.
• Set in place better
programs for water
service delivery with
transparent reviews of
updated information
using current survey data
–EPPSO etc.
KALGOV • Assist in the
planning process
for infrastructure
development on
Ebeye.
• Undertake better
Interco operative
measures for
local/national/utilities
sectors on Ebeye.
• Improve bottlenecks in
administrative support to
utilities and private
sectors
KADA • Improve support
systems for
KAJUR and
KALGOV
• Restructure the
operating platform
within KADA,
policies and
objectives etc.
• Restructure policies
and organizational
objectives to meet
the needs of
Ebeyan’s today.
• Directly mediate and
liaise key stakeholders
for Ebeye under the
collaborative emphasis
• Fund and implement
major infrastructure
amendments for Ebeye
especially in the area of
water and sanitation.
Ministry of Health • Improved support
for
epidemiological
data on Ebeye.
• Increased
outreach
campaigns in
communities.
• Better liaising and
networking with
EPA Ebeye /
Majuro
• Commit resources
into community
action groups/ youth
networks etc. to
assist in the
development of
Community
programs with
emphasis on water
and sanitation.
• Complement outreach
programs with public
community forums on
health issues.
• Compare data sets with
agencies; EPPSO,
Ministry of Education,
etc.
• Improved awareness
raising activities for
Communities through
robust and focused
activities working on
developing better water
and sanitation based
projects.
Landowners • More voiced
concern for
Ebeye residents
in utilities.
• Landowners’ council to enact a system of community
group dealing with community concerns.
42. 42
Ministry of
Education
Developed health
curriculum focused on
‘marshallese’ issues that
are relevant to the
communities both urban
and rural.
Stronger education tools and
policies for community
health/education programs.
Consistent commitment with
significant resource allocation.
Better curriculum development
tools, and feedback loops.
USAKA • Encouraged safe water practices for the Ebeye community
• Provide better access to Ebeye residents.
Public
(consumers)
• Community action groups to actively voice their concerns over water resources on the
island of Ebeye and in North Camp especially.
DecisionsStakeholders
Normative Strategic (legitimization/
formulation)
Operational (implementation/
evaluation)
MOBIL • Contractual agreements with RMI government to subsidize fuel costs.
• Structured
systems for water
resource
management
(RMI)
RMIEPA
• Updated
(reviewed)
legislation on all
water resources.
• Streamlined
programs and
focused policy to
meet MDG targets
within goals.
• Better policy
planning measures
inclusive to
community and
NGO’s as partners.
• Lasting commitment to
program objectives
• With adaptive measures
to include disaster risk
management, climate
change impacts etc.
• Promotion of urban water
monitoring programs for
communities to mobilize
action for change in
urban settings.
The model therefore for Collaborative management applicable to the situation on Ebeye can be
as follows:
NORMATIVE DECISIONS
• Review the existing water supply and sewage treatment facilities infrastructure and
development, currently and possible future.
• In depth study of the hydrology and geomorphology of the underlying island water lens.
• Review the existing legislation and regulations for water supply and resource
management with emphasis on freshwater resources.
• Regulations and penalties for illegal contamination/pollution and interruption to water
resources may require revision.
• Dissemination of information from the RMIEPA can be made through reports,
awareness raising materials and publications from offices on both Ebeye and in Majuro.
• Collaborative framework for KAJUR and its stakeholders on Ebeye.
• Development of community empowerment through capacity building exercises with
involved stakeholders.
STRATEGIC LEVEL; LEGITIMIZATION AND FORMULATION
43. 43
A bulk of this decision making would be from the relevant state agencies even at this level of
planning and formulation ongoing sharing and negotiations must include all stakeholders or at
least representatives of the stakeholders involved in the decision making process.
• National commitment through policy amendments and restructure within existing policy
to cover broader natural resource management objectives for the Marshall Islands with
emphasis on vulnerable sectors like freshwater resources.
• Streamlined programs that are attentive to the needs of communities and are
sustainable in the long term.
OPERATIONAL DECISIONS: THE IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION PROCESS.
National programs that are focused on atoll level as community programs that develop and
enhance community management systems and situations.
Implementation of national strategies/ and program initiatives with Direct commitments from
all stakeholders that water resources/sanitation and basic utilities like sewerage are an
important aspect of urban development on Ebeye.
With each of these systematic process it is not difficult to envisage a better situation for the
people of Ebeye, however it should be noted that such programs for communities be as
realistic and as practical as possible and all the objectives/aims be communicated clearly to all
stakeholders at all times. A thorough and comprehensive log frame analysis of the National
situation on water resources is an important tool. The use of current and updated data sets
must also be used to complement policy and decision makers in the designing of national
frameworks on environmental issues like freshwater resources and the Marshall Islands.
Therefore smaller communities like North Camp on Ebeye are an essential component in
creating forecasts of future projections with respect to increased urbanization and climate
change. Although national policies are by nature sometimes ineffective to implement on the
ground to improve the quality of life, communities will no doubt play a participatory proactive
role in supporting national policies whilst managing community resources sustainably. This
balance is sometimes the most difficult negotiation to achieve but it should be evident that
most stakeholders share common goals. This would mean that communities, state
administrative bodies, policy makers/ planners can meet on a common field and improve their
current status.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arms, K. (1990). Environmental Science. Saunders College Publishing.
AUT. (2003). Resource Management Notes 2003. NRM notes . AUT‐ (Bill Hales Lecturer).
47. 47
ANNEX 2: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE INFORMATION SHEET
Research Thesis: Resource management of small water supply systems on Ebeye Island, Kwajalein, Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Summary.
Ebeye Island is the second major urban center in the Republic of The Marshall Islands is located on Kwajalein atoll, supporting a population of roughly more than
12000* people. The land area available is approximately 0.14 sq miles and Ebeye is also the second urban center of the Marshall Islands and provides
employment, health care and education and opens a door of opportunities for people seeking a better standard of living. Kwajalein atoll is also the location of the
Ronald Reagan Missile testing program [USAKA] which provides employment for a number of Marshallese workers who work on the base and its neighboring
testing sites. The aim of this project is to collect background information into the environmental issues relating to water, and its management as a natural
resource. Water on these islands is an important and indeed vital resource for survival and with increased urbanization and island to town drift an increasing
population would indeed place stress on an already fragile resource. The sustainable management of freshwater resources on Ebeye is a process that requires a
cooperative multisectoral approach from both public and non-public sectors. Thus a comprehensive assessment of freshwater resources on Ebeye Island both
present and in the past needs to be undertaken to provide baseline information that can be used by decision makers and stakeholders in the area of resource
management pertaining to freshwater resources on Ebeye Island in the Marshall Islands.
Methodology.
• Interviews with public officials in Health, Environment, Public Works and Utilities providers.
• Survey questionnaires and information sheets conducted in zones.
• Photographical documentation of related areas and sites.
• Review and assessment of all relevant documents pertaining to water borne diseases on Ebeye, Health report publications etc, Health surveys and
reports, published research etc.
• Internet sources, texts and related bibliography.
Statement of Confidentiality:
• The research that is conducted here and the findings associated with this research are not affiliated with any organization either private or public, or
related media source and is therefore private and confidential.
• This research is an individual study undertaken as a student assessment and is not to be reproduced for any other purposes other than research.
General Information.
• Rodney Lui (FIT id: 2000002245) AUT Student no#: 0318062.
• Description: Research project completion for Bachelors of Applied Science in Environmental Science.
• Institution of Study: Auckland University of Technology [New Zealand], through Distance learning with Fiji Institute of Technology Samabula Campus.
• Primary contact/ program coordinator: Mr. Nirbhay Chand, Senior Lecturer Science School of General Studies, Fiji Institute of Technology Samabula
Campus.(email:n_chand@fit.ac.fj)
• Please email me at anytime if you have any questions or queries: [email: robs_2245@yahoo.co.nz]
