Sugarcane cotton cultivation

1. Sugarcane

2. Introduction
• Botanical Name: Saccharum spp.
• Family: Gramineae/ Poacea
• Sugarcane (Saccharum spp), is a strongly growing grass with a C4 carbon cycle
photosynthetic pathway.
• It is highly adapted to a wide range of tropical and subtropical climates, soils
and cultural conditions .
• Sugarcane is the main source of sugar manufacturing raw material in tropical
and sub tropical countries in the world.

3. • Sugarcane contributes to about 75% sugar requirement of the world.
• Brazil, India,Thailand ,China-Top 4 major sugarcane producers (FAOstat 2019)
• India is the largest consumer of sugarcane, followed by Brazil, China, and the
European Union.
• Remaining sugar comes from sugarbeet, (Beta vulgaris), sweet sorghum (Sorghum
spp), palms (Borassus flabellifer), coconut etc.
• It is a raw material of sugar factory, khandsary (Brown sugar mills) and jaggery
(Gur mills) industries.
• Besides providing raw materials, it is especially important for alcoholic and
beverages manufacture plants
• By products: molasses, baggase, mudfilter, topcanes
• Ethanol is produced from molasses (4%) which is later blended with petrol to
make an excellent bio-fuel.

4. • The generation of surplus electricity from bagasse is already well established,
and in Mauritius 40 % of the country‟s electricity is produced in this way.
• Carbon dioxide emission is reduced where coal is replaced by bagasse/trash as a
fuel.
• Molasses can also be used to produce different fermentation products like
lactic, oxalic, tartaric, melic, fumaric and citric acids.
• Molasses are widely used in the production of bakers, yeast, food and feed
industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of confectionary, pharmaceuticals, plastics, pickles
and dairy products.
• Ripe sugarcane of 12 months duration will have around 12-18% fibre, 65-75%
absolute juice, ash and other colloids in small proportions, 14-20% sucrose

5. • By products of sugarcane:
Molasses
• Molasses is the dark brown vicious fluid discharged by the centrifugals after no
more sugar can be separated from the final separation.
• It contains 35% sucrose and 15% reducing sugar and can be used to manufacture
ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, citric acids, rum etc in the distilleries.
•Widely used as livestock feed either directly or in compound products or mixing
with silage during its preparation

6. Bagasse:
• Bagasse is the fibrous residue left after the extraction of the juice from cane and
be used as the main source of fuel in sugar factory.
• It can also be used in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, fibre board, wall
board, plastics
Filter press mud
• The solid disposal material collected from the filtration of cane juice daily in the
sugar factory, which contains high amount of organic carbon, phosphorus and
can be used as organic manure.
• A sugar factory with a capacity of 2500 tons cane per day produces daily about
5-7 tons of press mud which produces disorder during decomposition in the
sugar factory.

8. ORIGIN AND HISTORY
• The word “sugar” is derived from the Sanskrit word Sankkara/Sarkara.
• Cultivation of S/C was started fromVedic period in Nepal.
• The most ancient reference to S/C is in `Athervaveda‟ which is 5000 years old.
• On the basis of literature mainly there are two center of origin of sugarcane i.e.
India and New Guinea.
• Barber (1931) reported that thin Indian canes probably originated in
northeastern India and the noble cane is originated from New Guinea.
• The noble cane cultivation was started extensively in 19th century only

9. CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES
• Sugarcane is known by the scientific name Saccharum officinarum
• In fact officinarum is one of the species.
• Saccharum officinarum, S. sinensis and S. barberi are the three main
cultivated species of sugarcane.
• S. spontaneum and S. robustum are the wild species which are used for
breeding and research study only.

10. CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
Subkingdom:Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Superdivision: Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class: Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Subclass: Commelinidae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
Genus: Saccharum
Species: officinarum

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIES
1. Saccharum officinarum (Noble cane).
•These are tall upto 6m and have thick stalk. Cylindrical stalks of diameter 2-
6cm
• Juicy canes are good for chewing purpose.
• Canes contain high sugar content, low fiber and produce high tonnage.
•The canes are high susceptible to moisture stress, low temperature, saline,
alkaline and water logged condition.
• It has 2n=80 chromosomes.

12. 2. Saccharum sinense
•This is also known as “Chinese cane”.
•This species of sugarcane is indigenous to North-eastern India or south east
China.
•This species is characterized by long internodes and thin stalk, long and
narrow leaves, low to medium sucrose content and early maturity.
• Plant height upto 4cm diameter of stalk 1-2cm.
• Stems have high fiber content and yield poor quality juice.
•The canes are susceptible to moisture stress condition, mosaic and red rot
disease.
•The chromosome number is 2n =111 to 120

13. 3. Saccharum barberi
•This species derives its name from S/C scientist Dr. C.A. Barber of India and
is known as “Indian species”.
•This species is also indigenous to North-eastern India.
• Canes are hardy, drought and frost resistant to some extent.
• Plant height upto 5cm, diameter 2-4cm
• Canes are characterized by short and thin stalk, narrow leaves, low to
medium sucrose content and early maturity.
•The canes are highly tolerant to high and low temperature, saline, alkaline
and water logged condition.
• It has chromosome number 2n =81 to 124

14. 4. Saccharum robustum
•This species is discovered in New Guinea.
•The stalks are long, thick and vigorous growing.
• It is rich in fibre and poor in sugar.
•This is a wild species and not suitable for agricultural production. •The
chromosome number is 2n = 60 to 80.
5. Saccharum spontaneum
• It is also known as wild cane.
• Cane is very thin and short, the leaves are narrow and hard.
•The sugar content is very low (2-10%).
•This species is useful for evolving hybrid varieties particularly to obtain
disease and stress resistant types.

15. GROWTH PHASE OF SUGARCANE
• S/C is a C4 plant and it possesses C4 photosynthetic pathway.
• S/C is one of the most converters of solar energy, thus having potential to
produce huge amount of biomass.
• It has passed 4 growth stages:

17. 1. Germination and establishment phase
• This phase is from planting to germination of buds.
• Under controlled condition it occurs within 7-10 days and
in field condition usually lasts for about 30-35 days.
• Under field conditions germination starts from 7 to 10 days
and usually lasts for about 30-35 days.
• In sugarcane, germination denotes activation and
subsequent sprouting of the vegetative bud.
• The germination of bud is influenced by the external as
well as internal factors.

18. • Soil moisture, soil temperature and aeration are external factors while bud
health, sett moisture, sett reducing sugar content and sett nutrient status are
internal factors.
• Base temperature for germination is about 12OC and optimum temperature for
sprouting is around 28o -30oc
• Warm, moist soil ensures rapid germination.
• Germination results in an increased respiration and hence good soil aeration are
important.
• Therefore open structured porous soils facilitate better germination.
• Under field conditions, about 60% germination can be considered safe for
raising a satisfactory crop.

19. 2.Tillering phase
• Tillering is a physiological process of repeated underground branching from
compact nodal joints of the primary shoot.
• Tillering starts from around 45 days and may last upto 120 days of the crop.
• Tillering is influenced by various factor like variety, light, temperature, irrigation
and fertilizer practices.
• Light is the most important factor influencing tillering.
• Though 6-8 tillers are produced from a bud ultimately only 2-3 tillers per bud
remain to form canes.

21. • Early formed tillers give rise to thicker and heavier stalks while late formed
tillers either die or remain short or immature.
• Maximum tiller population reaches around 90-120 days after planting.
• By about 150-180 days, at least 50 % of the shoots die and a stable population is
established.
• Cultivation practices such as spacing, time of fertigation, water availability and
weed control influence tillering.
• Ratoon crop gives much higher and early tillering than a plant crop

22. 3. Grand growth phase
• Out of total tillers produced, only about 40-50 % survive to form millable canes by
around 120-150 days.
• This phase lasts upto around 270 days in a 12 month variety.
• This is the most important phase of the crop for actual cane formation and elongation
of stalk.
• Warm (around 30oC) and humid (around 80%) weather conditions favor better cane
growth.
• During this phase the leaf area index (LAI) may reach around 6-7
• Under favourable conditions stalks grow rapidly almost 4-5 internodes per month.
• Drip irrigation, fertigation and warm, humid and sunny climatic conditions favour
better cane elongation.
• Moisture stress reduces internodal length.

23. 4. Maturation and ripening phase
• Sucrose synthesis and accumulation phase, which is lasts for about 3 months
(270-360 days).
• During this phase rapid accumulation of sugar takes place and vegetative
growth is reduced.
• As ripening advances simple sugars (glucose, fructose) are converted into
sucrose.
• Cane ripening proceeds from bottom to the top and hence bottom portion
contains more sugars than the top portions.
• Ample sunshine, clear skies, cool night and warm days and dry weather are
highly conductive for ripening.

24. WHYTHE PRODUCTIVITY OF S/C IS LOW IN
NEPAL ?
• The constraints arc social, administrative, climatic, managerial or agronomic and
technical.
1. Less growing period (although the crop stands 12 months in the field, because of low
temperature during winter and very high temperature during summer, the actual
duration of growth is only 6-7 months).
2. Low use of chemical fertilizers and organic manures
3. Lack of technical know-how
4. Poor management of ratoon crop
5. High incidence of disease and pest
6. Lack of irrigation facilities, which is essential during summer months.
7. Lack of high yielding varieties
8. Unavailability of inputs and credits in time
9. Poor marketing facilities
10. Unavailability of quality seed material etc.

25. Climatic and Edaphic Requirements
Ideal condition for cultivation:
• A long, warm growing season with a high incidence of solar radiation and
adequate moisture (rainfall) - the plant uses from 148 to 300g of water to
produce 1.0g of dry substance.
• A fairly dry, sunny and cool, but frost free season for ripening and
harvesting .
• Moisture % drops steadily throughout the life of the sugarcane plant from
83% in very young cane to 71% in mature cane.
• Freedom from typhoons and hurricanes

26. 1.Temperature
• S/C is a tropical plant & can be grown up to 1500 m.
• The optimum temperature for bud sprouting is around 28-30 oC, growth and
development 26-32 oC, while growth and tillering is restricted below 18 oC.
• Cultivation is not possible in areas where the temperature remains below 5 oC
and above 50 oC.
• During ripening season it should be cool, mean day temp between 10-20 oC, frost
free
• At high temp (>38oC) reversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose may occurs
and leading to less accumulation of sugar.
• At severe cold weather inhibits bud sprouting in ratoon crop and arrests cane
growth.

27. • Temperatures lower than 0°C induces freezing of less protected parts
such as young leaves and lateral buds.
• The damage depends upon the length of the cold period.
• Smut initiation and spread is high at ambient temp of 25° -30°.
• Similarly the spread of red rot disease is high at higher temperatures
(37°-40oC) when all other conditions are similar.
• Shoot-fly incidence is high in summer when the air temperatures are
very high.

28. 2. Rainfall
• The crop does best in the tropical regions receiving a rainfall of 750-1200
mm or upto 2500 mm /yr.
• For obtaining high yields 2000-2500 mm/yr evenly distributed rainfall is
considered ideal.
• Heavy rainfall causes lodging and reduces the quality of cane juice.
• During the active growth period, rainfall encourages rapid cane growth,
cane elongation and internodes formation.
• But during ripening phase rainfall is not desirable.
• In high rainfall it leads to poor juice quality, encourages vegetative
growth, formation of water shoots and increase in the tissue moisture.
• It also hampers harvesting and transport operations.

29. 3. Light
• S/C is a short day sun loving plant. In Nepal flowering is in Nov-Dec.
• Under bright sunshine condition the stems are thicker but shorter, leaves
are broader and greener.
• While under low sunshine conditions the stems are slender and longer,
leaves are narrower with yellowish color which hinders secondary shoot
development, greatly reduces root development and reduces the
percentage of dry matter.
• Therefore greater incidence radiation favors higher S/C and sugar yield.
• About 7-9 hours of bright sunshine is highly useful both for active growth
and ripening.

30. 4. Relative humidity
• The RH does not have much influence if water supply is not limiting.
• Moderate value of 45-65% with limited water supply is favorable during
ripening phase.
• High humidity encourages numerous fungal diseases of leaf, sheath and
root.
• High humidity with high temperature accelerates the deterioration of
harvested cane.
• S/C requires high temperature and humidity during formative and grand
growth phase but requires distinctly cool temperature and low humidity
during ripening and maturity

31. 5. Wind
• High velocity winds exceeding 60 km/hour are harmful to
grow canes leading to lodging and cane breakage.
• Wind enhances moisture loss from the plant and thus
aggravates the ill effect of moisture stress.

32. 6. Frost
• Severe cold weather inhibits bud sprouting and
arrests cane growth.
• At temperature -1 to -2 oC cane leaves and
meristem tissues are killed.

33. SOIL
• S/C once planted remains in the field for 2-3 years which results in heavy
extraction of plant nutrients.
• An ideal soil is very crucial for getting consistent yields.
• Very often gradual yield reduction is attributed to the poor condition and
wrong selection of land (soil).
• Sugarcane can be grown successfully on all types of soils with texture
ranging from sand, sandy loam to clay loams and heavy clay.
• The ideal soils are deep, aerated, well structured sandy loams to clay
loams with an adequate supply of organic matter.

34. • A well-drained loamy soil with neutral reaction (pH 6-7.5) is ideal for S/C
cultivation.
• S/C is sensitive to soil O2 deficiency.
• The critical limit is about 3.4% and value less than this impairs root
development and nutrient uptake.
• Moderately heavy and medium deep loams (1-2 meter deep) are better
suited than heavy, light or shallow soils.
• The optimum soil pH is about 6.5 but it grows on a wide range between
4 and 8.5.

35. FIELD PREPARATION
• To attain good tilth for better and proper germination of cane
• To resist soil erosion
• To incorporate preceding crop residues
• To destroy weeds, pests and disease causing organisms in the soil
• To incorporate organic manure and
• To facilitate proper soil chemical and microbial activity.
• Initial land preparation should ensure proper physical condition of soil to
enable the development and functioning of the good root system.

36. • S/C needs deep tillage, the shallow ploughing with local plough limits the
development of root system resulting in lodging.
• One deep ploughing with soil turning plough followed by two cross
harrowing or 5-6 ploughing with local plough.
• Planking should be done to make the field smooth and clod free.
• Remove all weeds, stubbles, break the clods and level the field.
• If there is lack of moisture in the field then give one pre-planting
irrigation for proper germination.

37. PLANTING MATERIALS
• Known as “setts” each having one or several eye buds.
• Each sett should be 18-22 cm in length and should have at least 3 active
live buds.
• The selection of good planting material is grossly neglected by the cane
growers.
• Selection of the right type of setts for planting and subjecting them to
various treatment before planting is the key to healthy crop.
• Use healthy and fresh setts

38. CRITERIA OF SETT
SELECTION
• Select thick, fresh and tender setts.
• The setts should be selected from 10-11 month
old crop.
• The eye buds should be prominent but not
over mature.
• If setts are brought from distance place, it is
advisable to bring it with leaves intact to avoid
drying of cane.

39. IMPORTANT PLANTING MATERIALS
1.TOP 1/3 RD PORTION OFTHE CANE
• Upper 1/3 rd portion of the cane are better than lower portion of the
stem.
• The top portion contains high amount of glucose, it enhanced the
germination.
• The top 1/3 rd portion is relatively young and succulent.
• The eyes starts germination and growth at faster rate after planting.
• Lower buds are aged and dormant and takes longer time to germinate
and grow.

40. • Healthy free from pests and disease like red rot, wilt, smut and ratoon
stunting should be selected.
• Good quality setts should have healthy buds, higher moisture content,
adequate nutrients, higher amount of reducing sugars and should be fresh.
• Each node should have one healthy bud and free from aerial roots from
nursery crop.
• Setts should not be drawn from a ratoon crop, grown under stress
condition such as salinity, alkalinity, water logging or drought.

41. • The setts with either 2-3 eye buds are cut using a sharp knife placing the
cane on a small wooden log or by using a sett-cutting machine.
• If knives is used it should be sterilized to avoid transmission of diseases.
• About 30,000 three budded setts are required to plant 1 ha area using
end to end in furrows (90 cm wide).
• The cuts should be slanting and multiple cuts should be avoided.
• It is desirable to prepare the setts just before planting may be a day
before

42. • Most sugarcane farmers do not treat the setts before planting so the
germination is only around 40%.
• About 60% germination can be easily achieved by sett treatment.
• Cut the cane with sharp knife.
• Occasionally disinfect the knife with 2% phenol solution.
• Sett treatment with hot water at 51oC for two hours or moist air
treatment at 54oC for 2.5 hours.
• Setts should be dipped in 0.1% solution of Bavistin (10 g Bavistin in 10
litres of water) or Bayleton (0.05%) (5 g Bayleton in 10 litres of water) for
10 to 15 minutes.

43. • The setts should be dipped into 0.5% solution of Agallol (3%) or 0.25%
solution of Aretan (6%) or Emisan (6%).
• Aretan improves germination and keeps off fungal attack.
• If sets are infested with scale insect or wooly aphids, sets should be
dipped in solution of Malathion ( 50EC), 30 ml or Dimethoate ( 30EC), 27
ml in 10 litres of water for 10 to 15 minutes.
• If fresh setts are not available for planting, setts should be dipped in
solution of 500 g lime in 200 litres water for 12 to 24 hours.

44. 2. RAYUNGANS
• Indonesian term meaning “ A developed cane shoot”.
• When standing canes are topped, some of the axillary buds sprout and tend
to develop new shoots due to elimination of apical dominance.
• When the sprouts are about 4-6 weeks old, they are fit for removal from the
mother stem and planting in the field.
• A "tailed" or "long rayungan" is several noded 40cm top-sett having side-
shoots at the top.

45. Methods of preparation of rayungans
• Set a side a small portion of S/C field for seed purpose.
• Top-off the standing canes to force the axillary buds to sprout and develop
into independent shoots from the nodes.
• Apply judicious amount of chemical fertilizer and irrigation for good growth
of the Rayungans
• Remove the Rayungan after 4-6 weeks old and use them either for planting
or gap filling in S/C ratoons.
• It is reported that better quality juice with high sucrose can be obtained
from Rayungans as compared to that of cane setts especially under late-
planted conditions.

46. 3. GORMANDIZERS OR WATER SHOOTS
• Late sugarcane tillers are very vigorous and extremely stout.
• These young tillers, have young and active viable buds are known as
“Gormandizers or water Shoots”.
• New shoots are immature at harvesting time and are not to be harvested
along with well-matured main shoots and are to be left over in the field at
harvest time.
• This left over shoots later on can be used as planting materials.
• If water shoots harvested and crushed with the main shoots will produce
poor quality cane juice.

47. 4. IMMATURE CANE SETTS
• To get immature cane setts or to multiply new variety, farmers grow S/C
in the separate field, which can occupy about 1/10th of their total S/C
area.
• Can be used after 6-7 months for planting.
• The whole clump can be used as planting materials.
• They are immature plant containing active and succulent bud for better
germination.
• Some cane growers grow cane just for seed supplying for others.

48. 5. WINDROWING CANES
• In frost prone areas, buds are injured by frost during November to January,
under such conditions farmers growing S/C crops, pull out the S/C plants
intended for planting along with roots, laid in pits and cover the pits with
S/C trash and earth.
• Canes are kept in the pits for 2-3 months till there is danger of frost.
• Later on these canes are removed from the pits, made into setts and
planted at the time of planting (Spring).
• The whole process involved is known as “Windrowing of canes”.
• This practice is generally followed by Punjab and Hariyana states of North
India.

49. RecommendedVarieties
Sugarcane Research Programme, Jeetpur, Bara

50. • The varieties, which attain such level at 12, 14 and 16 months age,
(planted in December/January) are classified as early, mid-late and late
maturing types.
• EarlyVarieties : Early varieties attain 16% sucrose and ready for harvest at
10-11 months. Most of the early varieties are rich in sucrose, because of
their relatively shorter vegetative growth phase and they are generally
low yielder. Jeetpur-1, Jeetpur-2, Jeetpur-3, B.O-128
• Mid season varieties: They are generally planted during the middle of the
planting season and harvested likewise. They are generally high yielding
types with moderate level of sugar eg. B.O-110, CoSe-92423, CoSe-92430,
Cos-707.

51. • Late season varieties :They attain 16% sucrose and mature at the age of
14- 16 months. Most of the late varieties are high yielding but generally
lower sucrose levels than early and mid maturing varieties e.g. B.O-91,
B.O-88.
NOTE:
• A ratio of 30:40:30 has been suggested for early, mid-late and late ripening
varieties for optimal performance and utilization of the crushing seasons

52. Varieties used in different domain of Nepal
• Upland condition: B.O-91, Cos-767, Jeetpur-2, B.O-128
• Water logged condition: B.O-91, B.O-128, CoSe-92423
• Low input condition: B.O-91, Jeetpur-2, B.O-128
• Irrigated condition: Jeetpur-1, Jeetpur-2, B.O.128, CoSe-92423, CoSe-
92430, B.O-91, COS-767 and B.O-110

53. PLANTING METHODS
A. Conventional methods
1. Flat bed method
2. Ridge and furrow method
3. Trench method
B. Improved methods
1. Rayungans planting method or IISR8626 method
2. Spaced transplanting method
3. Ring planting method

55. A. CONVENTIONAL METHODS
1. Flat bed method
• Land is brought to good tilth before planting by required number of
ploughing, harrowing, planking and levelling.
• Repeated ploughing and compaction breaks the capillary pores and create
a kind of soil mulch and thus help in conserving soil moisture.
• Required dose of fertilizers and manures are also applied and well mixed up
with the soil.
• In well-prepared land, shallow (8-10 cm depth) furrows are opened with a
local plough or cultivator at a distance of 75 to 90 cm.

56. • There should be adequate moisture in the field at the time of planting.
• The setts are planted by end-to-end method of arrangements of setts.
• The furrows are covered and field is leveled by heavy planking and
irrigation does not follow immediately
• The entire crop receives only 6-8 irrigations.
• Some S/C growers in terai region of Nepal follow this method.

57. 2. RIDGES AND FURROW METHOD
• Most common method adopted by the progressive farmers of Nepal where
irrigation facility is available. The ridges and furrow is the most ideal
system of planting under highly irrigated S/C cultivation.
• Wet method of planting
• Furrows are opened at the distance of 75-90 cm apart by using S/C ridger or
M.B plough, about 20- 25 cm deep.
• Furrow length of 10-15 meter is ideal when guided irrigation is followed.
• The furrow bottom should be loosened to about 10 cm.
• Setts are planted end-to-end or eye-to-eye in the furrows and covered with
8-10cm soils, leaving upper portion of furrows unfilled.
• Life irrigation is given after three days of planting.
• Second irrigation is given on 7-10 days after planting

59. 3.TRENCH METHOD
• It is followed in some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the
crop grows very tall and the strong wind during rainy season causes
lodging of cane.
• U-shapedTrenches
• The trenches of 30-40 cm depths and 75-120 cm apart are opened either
by using manual labor or by using MB reversible plough.
• The width of trenches is about 20 cm.
• After this already prepared mixture of fertilizers (NPK) should be spread
uniformly in the trenches and mixed thoroughly in soil.
• Planted by end-to-end or eye to eye method.
• Malathion 35 EC @ 5 liter per 1000 liter of water /ha is sprayed over
planted setts in trenches to control termites and shoot borers.

60. B. IMPROVED METHOD
1. Rayungan or IISR 8626 method
• IISR, Lucknow, India, developed this method.
• The seeds setts are developed from the standing crop by topping the clones
before 2 months of planting.
• The time taken may ranges from 3-12 weeks depending upon the prevailing
temperature at the time of topping operation.
• Under warm weather condition topping has to be done only one month
before planting

61. • At planting time, the trench should be prepared 90 cm from center to center,
20 cm wide and 30 cm deep first.
• The recommended amount of compost plus chemical fertilizer (1/3 rd portion)
should be mixed thoroughly in the soils and mixed by digging and loosening
the trench bottom further to 15 cm depth (total depth of pit is 45 cm).
• The dugout soil is then put back into the trench along with the remaining
fertilizers (2/3 rd portion of the recommended dose).
• Thus about 45 cm deep trench is now filled with loose soil and fertilizer.
• The Rayungans are cut out from the stalk; the green leaves of the shoots
should be trimmed.
• The material then dipped in a 0.25% solution of Aretan.
• The water is then allowed to flow in the trenches.
• The quantity of the water should be that it is just enough to be soaked in the
soil.

62. • The tailed Rayungans are placed vertically into the wet soil and keep
erect.
• The spacing between Rayungans should be about 50- 75 cm closer in
late planting and wider in early planting.
• The base of the shoots should be 5-10 cm below the original soil
surface (depth of planting).
• The number of rayungans required is about 20,000 ha-1 (half
compared to flat)
• 120-150kg/ha N, 100kg P2O5, 100-150kg K2O

63. 2. SPACEDTRANSPLANTING METHOD (STP METHOD)
• Settlings are raised in a nursery bed using single bud setts which are
transplanted of about 4 - 6 weeks old in the main field.
Why this method evolved ?
• Conventionally planted cane crop is unable to harvest solar radiation at its
optimum capacity.
• The higher percent of shoot mortality and stalk density per unit area is
serious problem of mortality.
• To improve such situation, this STP method was developed by IISR,
Lucknow, India

64. Nursery raising method
• Settling nursery is raised in a small area 4-6 weeks before actual planting.
• Total area of 50-75m2 areas /ha of land.
• The raised bed of width one meter and convenient length may be made.
• The length may be broken into 1m beds (i.e each bed will be 1mx1m.
• OM and chemical fertilizers and malathion should be applied during
seedbed preparation.
• The prepared beds are thoroughly soaked with water and single buded
setts are to be dibbled in 1m2 plots.

65. • In each small plot 600-800 single bud setts are accommodated and about
two ton of seed cane /ha
• Single bud setts are to be prepared from upper 1/3 rd of the canes by
cutting just above the growth ring and leaving 8-10cm of internodes below
the bud.
• The nursery beds are irrigated adequately and the setts dipped vertically
keeping the bud and root bands just above the soil surface.
• Before dibbling the setts are to be soaked in 0.25% Aretan solution for 5-
10 minutes.
• Nursery is irrigated frequently so as to maintain optimum moisture level.

66. • About 85-95% of buds sprout with in 3-4 weeks and ready for transplanting
within 4-6 weeks of planting.
• The transplantation of settlings can be done from both trench and flat
system.
• Transplanting at a distance of 90cm between rows and 60cm between plant
is recommended.
• The settlings required for 90x 60 and 75 x 45 spacing per hectare will be
19000 and 29000, respectively.

67. Advantage of STP method
• Saving nearly 4 tons of seed cane/ha as against 6-8 tons used in the normal
planting.
• Higher stalk population exceeding 1.2 lakh canes ha-1
• Uniform crop stand with uniform stalk weight
• Late shoot production considerably reduced
• Lower incidence of pest and disease
• Reduce lodging of canes
• Increase in yield, 20-25% in tropical and 40-45% in subtropical regions.
• Sufficient time availability to prepare the main field.
• Saving of 2-3 irrigations and better weed management.
• Saving of 20-30 days in the main field.

68. Nursey trays and sprouted buds

69. 3. RING PLANTING METHOD
• IISR, Lucknow, has developed this system in which the mother shoots is
encouraged and tillers suppressed.
Principle
• After germination of planted canes setts, S/C crop starts sprouting tillers.
• Tillers emerge from the buds present on the underground portion of the
first emerged shoot is known as "Mother Shoot".
• In a favorable environmental condition, mother shoot may produce as
many as 50 tillers.
• Tillers are weak and are parasite on mother shoot because of their initial
growth and development initially the growth of mother plant is retarded.

70. • The emerging tillers compete for light, space,
moisture and available plant nutrients.
• They are of little economic value to the
farmers.
• If tillers emergence could be prevented some
how then the mother shoot will grow freely
without sharing nutrients with their offshoots
and thus might produce more yield.
• This could be achieved by inducing initial
competition among the plants through the use
of heavy seed rate.

72. Method of preparing rings
• A circular ring of 90cm diameter and 45cm depth is made at 120cm
interval
• The soil from the ring is dugout and kept on the periphery of the pit in 30
cm space left in between two pits.
• In this way 6900 rings could be made in one hectare of land.
• However, 30 cm gap was not feasible to place the dug out soil in the gaps
and also for irrigation.
• Therefore now a day’s layout is modified.
• In the modified system a gap of 60 cm on another side is found suitable.
• At this spacing, irrigation channels are opened in the 90 cm gaps.
• At this spacing about 4000 pits can be formed per hectare.

73. Fertilizer application
• In every pit 5-8 kg FYM or compost or press mud whatever is available is
mixed with the soil.
• FYM can fill 10cm bottom of the pit.
• To prevent the crop against insect attack, 5gm Aldrin 5% or Malathion
dust must be mixed with FYM or compost.
• In addition to this, 10 gm urea, P2O5 and K2O each are added in every pit.
• Thirty days after germination 20gm urea must be top-dressed in every pit.
• Again at earthing-up time 20gm urea is to be top dressed in every pit.

74. Seed material and planting
• Twenty 3 buded good quality, pre treated setts should be placed
horizontally in each pit.
• After spraying Malathion solution over the setts, these are covered by
2.5-5 cm thick soil cover.
• After germination when plants grow, pits are filled up gradually with dug
soil.
• The filling is completed by the end of May for March planting and by the
end of Oct/Nov for Dec/January planting.
Yield
• Millable cane yield of 150-180 tons ha-1 is easily obtainable by using this
system of planting.

75. Advantages
• This system has given very high yields in the subtropics and in tropics
(25% higher yield were obtained).
• Gives better ratoons.
• It is better in saline soils and saline water irrigated condition.
• It is better in drip system of irrigation or in undulated land area also.
Disadvantages
• This system required more labour to prepare pits.
• In non modified system of pit planting the space between pits (30 cm) is
very less to place dugout soil and to prepare irrigation channels.

76. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE
• Sugarcane is a heavy feeder, since the crop remains in the field for about a
year and requires sufficient nutrition at various growth stages.
• The cane quality and yield is decided on the time, method of application
and quantity of fertilizer applied.
• A 100 tons crop absorbs at least 130kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 175kg K2O.
• The fertilizer requirement of S/C depends upon the initial fertility status of
soil, irrigation facility available, crop growth period and nutrient uptake
capacity of the variety

77. Nitrogen requirements:
• It influences cane yield through its effect on leaf area, leaf area duration,
leaf area index (LAI) and rate of photosynthesis.
• The yield of cane increased by the addition of N is due to improved yield
attributes like number of mill able canes, stalk length and girth.
• Excessive N leads to “Pipping” and increased incidence of insect and
diseases.
• The recommended dose of N for irrigated and rainfed condition of Nepal is
150 and 120kg ha-1 respectively
• Regarding time and method of application, the entire dose needs to be
applied within 100 days irrespective of the duration and variety.

78. • Normally 2-3 splits are made at critical growth stages viz. 45-60DAS, 60-75DAS
and 100DAS.
• Nitrogen is band placed near the stool and the foliar spray has been found to
improve efficiency of N fertilizers to S/C because it can be absorbed quickly.
• In absence of N leaves become pale green, tillering is reduced and continued N
deficiency leads to tip and margin drying.
• Excess of Nitrogen means presence of more amino acids like glutamine,
asparagine, thyrosine.Their presence however, prevents crystallization of sugar
in juice as each amino acid utilizes 25 to 30 molecules of sugar.
• Further, excess N– immature sucker, continued growth cause depression of
sucrose in juice
• The best source of nitrogen in normal soil is Ammonium sulphate, urea in saline
and CAN in acidic soil.

79. • Phosphorus requirements
• It is necessary for early establishment of crop through extensive root
system and vigorously growing shoot.
• Cane is able to utilize about 20% of applied P.
• The recommended dose of P2O5 for irrigated and rainfed condition is
60kg ha-1 each.
• Normally P is applied in single dose as basal but in sandy loam soils with
neutral pH it can be applied in two installments i.e. basal and at tillering
(45-60DAS) stage.
• Sett treatment with mycorrhizae (VAM) enhanced tillering and dry
weight of S/C shoots which is primarily due to enhanced P uptake.
• In absence of P internode become slender, leaves also become short and
narrow.

80. Potassium requirements
• S/C removes enormous quantities of K from soil, even up to 900kg ha-1 ,
which could be termed luxury consumption.
• It improved girth and cane volume and acts as a catalyst in plant
metabolism for increasing assimilation rates, photosynthesis,
deposition of sugar, translocation of proteins and sucrose from leaf to
storage tissue.
• The recommended dose is 40kg K2O ha-1 in irrigation and rainfed
condition of tropical and subtropical region as basal dose

81. Micronutrient requirements
• Among the micronutrients, the deficiency of Zn and Fe are frequently
seen.
• When S/C is grown after paddy, Zn deficiency is commonly seen which can
be diagnosed by stunted growth and patchy appearance.
• In soils deficient with micro nutrients like iron, zinc, manganese, copper,
molybdenum and boron should be applied.
• A total of 25 kg Ferrous Sulphate, 20 kg Zinc Sulphate, 10 kg Manganese
Sulphate, 10 kg Copper Sulphate. 2.5 kg Sodium Molybdate and 5 kg Borax
per hectare should be applied if deficiency seen

82. Organic manure
• Besides these chemical fertilizers, we should apply sufficient amount of
organic matter.
• Compost 10-15 tons ha-1 or filter press mud and oil seed cake 5-10 tons
ha-1 before one month of cane planting.
• Application of green manure along with inorganic fertilizers has
improved tillering, increased cane yield and improved the juice quality.
• Other supplemental sources of nutrients are biofertilizers, effluents and
crop residues.

83. TIME OF PLANTING
• Autumn planting (October planting)
• Spring planting (February planting)
1. Autumn planting
Autumn planting is done in Sept-Nov after the cessation of the rainfall.
It gives 20-25% more yield than spring planting due to favorable soil
moisture and moderate weather condition.
The autumn planted crops established well and thus gives good initial
crop stand.
It takes longer total growing period and gives higher cane and sugar
yields.

84. In spite of the advantages of autumn planting the commercial area under this
type of planting has been very small.
Less planting of autumn planting is also due to its interference with important
winter crops like wheat, potato, mustard, gram etc.
Most farmers don not want to sacrifice their winter crops also.
Important requirements for Autumn planting
• Choosing suitable cane variety, which can germinate quickly and can put forth
some growth during winter.
• Early planting (not delay than 1 st weeks of Nov.)
• Growing suitable intercrops
• Better control of pests particularly borers

85. 2. Spring Planting
Spring planting is done after the harvest of winter crops like wheat,
gram, potato, lentil etc, usually during Feb to April.
Most of the farmers of Nepal adopt this planting season.
This crop faced severe moisture stress and high temperature.
The crop actually pickup growth after the onset of monsoon rains in
June.
The spring planted crop has only 5-6 months of active growth period.
This is why the spring planted crop gives relatively less yield than
autumn planting.

86. SEED RATE
• Seed rate depends on time of planting, method of planting, planting distance,
quality of seed and sugarcane species.
• General recommendation for normal planting time in flat bed method is 40000
three-budded setts or 60,000 two-budded setts are safe.
• The seed rate will be 55-60 quintals ha-1 , if the cane is thick and the seed rate 45-
55 quintals ha-1 if the cane is thin
• S/C researchers of Nepal reported that the seed rate of S/C by Nepalese farmers
should be increased due to always used poor quality of seed setts.
• The contribution of mother shoots in yield is more than the contribution of
secondary and tertiary tillers.
• So if we can increase the number of shoots in the field, we can certainly increase
the yield.
• Higher seed rate is preferred particularly under moisture stress, salinity and water
logging conditions.

87. Irrigation and drainage
• S/C being a long duration crop producing large amount of biomass and
require large quantity of water.
• The utility of water will be enhanced if the soil is rich in organic content.
• Addition of adequate quantities of OM to soil, trash mulching of top soil
@ 15 ton/ha helps in conserving soil moisture.
• By adopting better water management and scientific crop production
practices we can reduce the yield gap of S/C

88. • The water requirements vary from 1000-3000 mm.
• Requirements of water depends on the crop cycle, soil type, planting
method, planting time, varieties, amount and frequency of rainfall etc.
• Considering 20% field application losses, 1400 to 2000 mm is enough
under surface irrigation.
• Farmer’s water use is 3000 - 4000 mm which shows enormous wastage
of water resource.
• On an average one ton cane needs 60-70 tons of water.
• The excess application of water result in water logging and salinity in
the farm.

89. • Spring season crop need 4-5 irrigations before onset of monsoon & 2-3
irrigation after monsoon and only 4-5 irrigations for autumn season
planted crop.
• The 1st irrigation at 20 DAS & at 10-15 days interval during summer and
25-30 days interval during winter.
• Excessive watering at tillering hinders root development and growth and
nutrient uptake due to poor O2 diffusion.
• Irrigation frequency should be reduced near harvesting and stopped about
a month before harvesting.

90. Water requirement of S/C in different growth phases
• Growth phase Days after planting Irrigation or rainfall (mm)
Germination 0-45 300
• Tillering 45-120 550
• Grand growth 120-270 1000
• Ripening 270-365 650
Total 2500mm

91. METHODS OF IRRIGATION
• The furrow irrigation is widespread and most popular
method of irrigation which does not require large
initial investment, but draw back is that it is difficult to
achieve uniform water distribution.
• Adoption of any one of the modern irrigation
techniques such as furrows with gentle slope, contour
furrows, leveled furrows, drip irrigation and a
combination of sprinkler plus straight furrows can
reduce these problems.
• Adoption of modern irrigation techniques and best
management practices will save about 50% water use
on farm and will almost double the sugarcane yield.

92. DRAINAGE
• Drainage is equally important in waterlogged areas to drain excess water
from the sugarcane fields if they get flooded during the rainy season.
• Root respiration becomes poor, nutrients are leached down, activities of
useful micro organisms are reduced and the crop lodges down with
excessive branching in water logged conditions

93. INTERCROPPING IN SUGARCANE
• S/C is a wider spacing crop and it takes about 4-6 weeks for germination.
• The growth at the beginning stage is also very slow especially during
winter months.
• If S/C is grown as a monoculture, weed becomes common problem during
early stage of the crop.
• Short duration crops like groundnut, cowpea, moong, onion, radish, okra,
peas, gram, potato, rapseed and mustard, lentil, linseed, coriander, broad
bean etc can be grown as intercrop.
• Research has indicated that by growing these crops as intercrop, the net
income from the combination is more than that of sugarcane crop alone.

94. • Intercropping also helps in reducing the growth of weeds and their
competition during early growth period of cane.
• Use of intercrops like pulses, groundnut, soyabean etc., also help to
improve soil nutrient.
• S/C research center Jeetpur, Bara reported that potato crop is best with
autumn planted due to increased potato and cane yield.
• Crops like tori, coriander and lentil did not increased the yield of cane
but were able to increase total income per unit area of land in autumn
season.
• Spring planted cane has given a limited choice of crops such as okra,
moongbean, cowpea (determinant type) etc as an intercrop.

95. Sequential cropping – Rotations : After sugarcane 1 or 2 or 3 crops
• Rice based cropping system for one year
• Wheat based
• Sugarcane-banana- rice based crop rotations

96. INTERCULTURAL OPERATION
Hoeing up
• Hoeing means loosening of soil and is necessary for earthing up.
• The hoeing operation (4-6 times) is generally done with the help of shovel
or cultivators or bullock drawn hoe or tractor drawn hoe.
• If these tools are not available than we use spade for hoeing.
• It starts just after 1-2 week of planting which is called blind hoeing.
• The 2nd about 3-4 weeks after planting and subsequent hoeing after every
irrigation.

97. OBJECTIVES OF BLIND HOEING
• To break hard crust.
• To cover the exposed setts properly
• To uproot the weeds
• To replace the damage setts by disease and insects
• To give better aeration
• To create good soil physical environment

98. Earthing-up
• It means putting the soil from the inter-row space to near the base of the
crop or the clump and it is also known as hilling up.
• It is done to protect the crop from lodging, facilitate irrigation and
economies water use efficiency, control weed infestation, remove the
water shoots and drain out the excess water from the field.
• A tractor drawn ridger can also be used for this purpose.

99. • Earthing up are 2-3times during crop period.
• The first earthing-up is known as "partial earthing-up and
• To cover the fertilizers
• To provide anchorage to root system
• The second operation is "full earthing-up".
• Full earthing-up is done after final manuring (90-120 days coinciding
with peak tillering)
• The soil from the ridge is thrown on both sides towards cane rows
and the furrows will become as ridges and ridges as furrows
• The furrows so formed are used for irrigation

100. • Earthing up at 3-4 month stage checks further
tillering, provides sufficient soil volume for
further root growth, promotes better soil
aeration and provides sufficient support to the
crop and thus preventing lodging.
• In autumn planting cane, two earthing-up
operation is done i.e 1st in Feb-March and 2nd in
May.
• Like wise, in spring planted cane, one earthing-up
operation is done in May

101. Wet earthing up
• Done around 6months age of the crop
• The furrows are irrigated and the wet soil from furrows is taken and plaster the ridges
• It checks late tillering and watery shoots
• Heavy earthing up is useful during floods
• When the flood water recedes, the excess water from earthed-up soil drains out quickly thus
providing aeration

102. Weed management
• Due to the slow initial growth of crop, the irrigation channels as well as
ridges and inter row spaces get infested with variety of narrow and broad
leaved weeds which pose a serious problem to cane growers, causing losses
up to 60-70 % in neglected fields.
• It is huge loss and must be reduced to increase the productivity of cane.
• Weeds are either manually removed during hoeing or are killed by use of
herbicides.

103. Most common weeds of S/C
• Sorghum halepense
• Cynodon dactylon
• Cyperus rotundus
• Commelina benghalensis
• Digera arvensis
• Eleusine indica
• Euphorbia hirta
• Digitaria sanguinallis
• Phyllanthus niruri
• Saccharium spontaneum
• Striga spp. etc

104. • The most critical period for the weed competition in S/C is upto 4 months
after sowing beyond which the crop smothers the weed flora by itself.
• The 3 weeks period from 4th to 6th week after planting is highly critical.
• Because this is the stage when the shoot roots develop and takes over the
functions of the sett-roots.
• Mechanical and chemical methods are generally used to control weed in
S/C.
• Mechanical methods of weed control include cultural practices, hot
weather ploughing or hoeing, and weeding, mulching, cropping system
etc which reduce the crop population and increase the crop yield.
• Mechanical methods are time taking, expensive or more labour
consuming and non-effective in unfavorable climatic conditions (monsoon
period).

105. List of herbicides used to control sugarcane weeds
S. N Herbicides Rate of application kg a.i./ha Type of application
1. Atrazine/Simazine 1.5-2.0 Pre-emergence
2. Diurone /Alachlore 2.0 ”
3. Basaline 1.0-1.20 Pre-planting
4. 2, 4-D 1-1.5 post emergence for dicot
and broad leaf weeds

106. Detrashing
• Detrashing is the process of removal of dry and lower green leaves of cane to save
the crop from food material loss.
• A normal stalk bears, on an average, 30-35 leaves, under good growing conditions.
• All these are not useful.
• For optimum photosynthesis only the top 8-10 leaves are required.
• Most of the bottom leaves dry out as the crop ages.
• In fact the bottom leaves drain out the food materials which otherwise could be
used for stalk growth.
• It is done around 150 days after planting by manually.
• Detrashing helps in clean cultivation
• Easy movement of air within the crop canopy

107. • Reduce certain pests like scales mealy bugs, white fly etc.,
• Easy entry into the field
• Avoids bud germination due to accumulation of water in
the leaf sheath
• Easy to take up cultural operations including sprayings
• Easy to harvest, obtaining clean canes for milling
• Detrashed leaves can be used for
• Mulching in the furrows or
• Used for composting
• Infested leaves with pest or disease may be burnt out

108. Wrapping and propping of sugarcane
Wrapping
• It is a practice of tying the leaves of cane around the clump, which is continued till
the S/C starts flowering (arrowing).
• The leaves are removed from the plants; the green leaves on the plants are
wrapped together by taking all canes of one bundle.
• Generally 3-4 clumps of canes are thus brought together and tied
• It prevents lodging of canes in regions of typhoons or heavy rainfall or heavy wind
areas.
• It is primarily done to facilitate propping (to give support).
• It helps to protect the canes from scorching sun heat.
• It helps to distribute CO2 properly to all the plants throughout the field.

109. Propping
• Propping is the operation of tying the canes
together using the dry leaves and bottom green
leaves.
• Or ropes with poles, which is necessary to give
support to the wrapped canes.
• S/C is a heavy yielder plant; high wind velocity may
cause lodging.
• When the crop lodges, it will come in contact with
the soils and buds will sprout and the reserved food
will drain and ultimately it decreases the sucrose
content of the cane and deteriorates the quality of
cane.

110. • Once the wrapping is over, the wrapped canes clumps are then tied with
bamboo poles upright at the top.
• The bamboo poles are either fixed up into the whole field at suitable
interval of distance or may be fixed only at the end of the field on either
side.
• The inter space in between the pole are tied with coconut/jute or any
other strings/ropes or wires and then the clumps are tied with the strings.
• In Nepalese situation, trash-twist method (trash is twisted to form a sort
of rope and cane stalks are tied together) of propping is done (Trashes are
the leaves without removing from the canes).

111. Removal of water shoots
• Water shoots are late formed tillers or side shoots, which are robust and fast
growing.
• They originate mainly due to excess water supply, heavy and late manuring,
inadequate earthing up.
• Water shoots contain lot of water, low sucrose and more of reducing sugars.
• Water shoots affects the growth of adjacent statics.
• Therefore removal of water shoots whenever they appear is highly essential.
• Water shoots can be used as cattle feed.

112. Lodging in Sugarcane
Lodging also very common in
• Tall varieties
• Top growth is heavy and
where the growth habit is
not erect, and
• The varieties with less fibre
content
To prevent lodging
Heavy earthing up
Propping
Paired row planting with earthing up
Deep trench planting
Selection of varieties resist lodging
Raising wind breaks along the field
borders
Application of potassium

113. MAJOR INSECTS
• Early shoot borer
• Root borer
• Top borer
• Sugarcane aphids
• Mealy bugs
• Gurdaspur borer
• Sugarcane white fly

114. MAJOR DISEASES
• Red rot (Collectotrichum falcatum)
• Red strips (Xanthomonas rubrilineans)
• Wilt (Cephalosporium sachhari)
• Smut (Ustilago scitaminea)
• Ratoon stunting (virus)
• Grassy shoot (virus)

115. HARVESTING
• Harvesting of cane depends on the variety and whether it is plant
cane or ratoon.
• Ratoon crop matures 15 days earlier than the main crop.
• Early crop varieties should be harvested during November, mid
season varieties during December and main season varieties during
last of January.
• S/C is harvested when it reaches the stage of maturity with highest
sucrose content.

116. SIGN OF MATURITY
• General yellowish color of whole crop
• Cessation of growth and arrows comes out
• Swelling of eye buds
• The eyes start sprouting
• Metallic sound of cane
• The lowermost internodes start cracking due to more sucrose
content
• Brix saccharometer reading between 21 & 24.
• Top-bottom ratio of H.R.Brix reading should be 1:1.
• Canes become brittle and break easily at nodes

117. • The real indicator for determining the maturity is the brix reading taken
with hand refractometer.
• The crop should be harvested when brix value is more than 19 or glucose
content is less than 0.5%.
• Or the maturation coefficient (ratio between the content of dry soluble
matter in the upper and lower part of the stalk) should be equal to 0.95-
0.98.
• Usually this stage comes during Dec-Jan.
• Before harvesting, the ridges are dismantled and stalks are cut as close
to the ground level (4-5cm) as possible to promote better sprouting with
the sharp sugarcane Knife or any other suitable tools

119. YIELD
• The cane yield ranges from 100-300 tons/ha on the crop cycle (12-36
months).
• A good crop yields about 150-200 tons/ha for 12 months crop cycle is
considered economically good but in our condition it is only about 40-60
tones/ha

120. • Purity Percentage = (Sucrose %/HR Brix)100
A cane crop is considered fit for harvesting if it has attained a minimum of
16% sucrose and 85% purity.
• CCS (tons/ha) = [Yield (tons/ha) x Sugar Recovery (%)] /100
Sugar Recovery (%) = [S - 0.4 (B - S)] x 0.73
Where, S= Sucrose % in juice and B= Brix (%)
• Cane yield = stalk number x single cane weight

121. RATOON MANAGEMENT
• Ratoon is a crop which is allowed to grow in the same field from the
eye buds left underground in the portion of stalk over stubbles after
harvest of the main crop without planting seed setts a new.
• Ratoons are considered as a free gift by the S/C growing farmers.
• Even though 40-50% of the S/C area harvested is of ratoons.
• Farmers do not pay proper attentions in proper management of the
ratoon crops and as a result yield of ratoon crop is very low

122. ADVANTAGES OF RATOON CROP
• The cost of land preparation, cost of seed and sowing is saved (about 25-
30%).
• Ratoon crops are ready to harvest earlier than the main crop and helps in
running sugar mills earlier.
• The quality of produce is superior to planted canes.
• The ratoon crop utilizes the residual fertility of the previous crop.
• The yield remains equal to the planted crop if due care is taken.
• Ratoons develop more extensive root system, make better use of moisture,
produces more tillers and foliage in drought or water logging condition.

123. DISADVANTAGES OR RATOON CROP
• It is liable to be attacked by many insect and disease.
• Soil becomes poor in fertility when ratooning is done for more than 2 years.
• Free or 'gift crop' attitude of the farmers towards ratoon and therefore poor
ratoon crop management.
• Reduced initial population because of reduced stubble sprouting

124. RATOON MANAGEMENT
A. PRE HARVEST OPERATIONS
• Selection of good ratooning varieties eg. Co1148, CO 8121, B.O-88, B.O-91, B.O-
99, CoS-767 and UP-1.
• Parent crop must have optimum plant population of about one lakh millable
canes/ha and proper management of previous crop is a must.
• The parent crop should be harvested earlier in October and in February/March
for keeping ratoon.
• Proper management should be done for the main crop.
• Dismantled the ridges and made flat land before main crop harvesting.

125. B. POST HARVEST OPERATIONS
• Harvest the canes as close to the ground as possible to promote
better sprouting.
• After harvesting of main crop, dry leaves (trashes) of previous crop
should be burned and irrigate to the stubbles.
• The burning trashes helps in destroying eggs, larvae of insects,
disease pathogens and weeds.
• Burning evolves heat, which converts sucrose of stubbles into glucose
for quick sprouting of ratoons.
• The improvement in cane yields averaged 16 and 11 % over the trash
burning
• Planting new cane setts should fill up gaps in the field.

126. • Rests of the irrigations are applied in the same pattern as for planted
crop.
• Use stubble-shaving machine for maintaining proper height of stubbles.
• Off barring/shoulder breaking
• Gap filling should be done with 3 buded setts after harvesting of main
crop.
• Fertilizer should be incorporated in inter row spaces about 25-30cm away
from plant rows.
• The rate of application should be about 150-200: 60:40kg NPK/ha as first
application after destroying the bunds and first irrigation.
• The weed control, earthing-up, hoeing, and plant protection measures
should be followed as main crop.

127. • Drainage should be provided to drain out excess water.
• Ratoon crop ordinarily gives lower yield than the plant crop but if
crop is managed properly a cane yield gives equal yield as of main
crop ha-1.

128. Stubble Shaver

130. Sugarcane Processing

131. Collecting the harvested cane
• Mature canes are gathered by a combination of manual and mechanical
methods.
• Canes are cut at ground level, its leaves are removed and the top is trimmed
off by cutting off the last mature joint.
• Cane is then placed into large piles and picked up, tied, and transported to a
sugar factory.

132. Prevention of Moisture loss in the Harvested cane
• Covering the harvested cane with trash and sprinkling with water both
under sun and shade reduced the moisture loss and prevented quality
deterioration.

133. Cleaning and Crushing
• Stalks are thoroughly washed and cut when reaching the sugar mill.
• After the cleaning process, a machine led by a series of rotating knives,
shreds the cane into pieces.
• This is known as "grinding." During grinding, hot water is sprayed on to the
sugarcane.
• The smaller pieces of cane are then spread out on a conveyer belt.

134. Juicing
• The shredded pieces of sugarcane travel on the conveyer belt through a
series of heavy-duty rollers, which extract juice from the pulp.
• The pulp that remains or "bagasse" is dried and used as fuel.The raw juice
moves on through the mill to be clarified.

135. Clarifying
• Carbon dioxide and the milk of a lime(suspension of calcium hydroxide ) are
added to the liquid sugar mixture and it is heated to the boiling point, as the
process of clarifying begins.
• As the carbon dioxide travels through the liquid it forms calcium carbonate,
which attracts non-sugar debris (fats, gums, and wax) from the juice, and
pulls them away from the sugar juice.
• The juice is then pushed through a series of filters to remove any remaining
impurities.

136. • The heat and lime kill enzymes in the juice and increase pH from a natural
acid level of 5.0–6.5 to a neutral pH.
• Control of pH is important throughout sugar manufacture because sucrose
inverts, or hydrolyzes, to its components glucose and fructose at acid pH
(less than 7.0), and all three sugars decompose quickly at high pH (greater
than 11.5).
• Heated to 99–104 °C (210–220 °F), the neutralized juice is pumped to a
continuous clarification vessel, a large, enclosed, heated tank in which clear
juice flows off the upper part while muds settle below.
• This settling and separation process is known as defecation.

137. Evaporation
• The clear juice which results from the clarifying process is put under a
vaccum, where the juice boils at a low temperature and begins to evaporate.
• It is heated until it forms into thick, brown syrup.

138. Crystallization
• By evaporating what little water is left in the sugar syrup, crystallization
takes place.
• Inside a sterilized vaccum pan, pulverized sugar is fed into the pan as the
liquid evaporates, causing the formation of crystals.
• The remaining mixture is a thick mass of large crystals, which is sent to a
centrifuge to spin and dry the crystals.
• The dried product is raw sugar, still inedible.

139. Refinery
• Raw sugar is transported to a Cane Sugar Refinery for the removal molasses, minerals and
other non-sugars, which still contaminate the sugar.
• This is known as the purification process.
• Raw sugar is mixed with a solution of sugar and water to loosen the molasses from the
outside of the raw sugar crystals, producing a thick matter known as "magma."
• Large machines then spin the magma, which separate the molasses from the crystals.
• Crystals are promptly washed, dissolved and filtered to remove impurities.
• The golden syrup which is produced is then sent through filters to remove the color and
water.
• What's left is concentrated, clear syrup, which is again fed into a vacuum pan.

140. Separation and Packaging
• Once the final evaporation and drying process is done, screens separate the
different sized sugar crystals.
• Large and small crystals are packaged and shipped, labeled as white,
refined sugar.
Sugar Facts
Refined white sugar is 99.9-percent sucrose.
White sugar is pure sucrose, containing no preservatives or additives.

141. THANK
YOU!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

142. COTTON (Gossypium spp)

143. Introduction
Common name: Cotton
Scientific name: Gossypium spp
Family: Malvaceae
• Cotton is a annual/perennial shrub of height about 2-3 m.
• Mostly grown in tropical and sub tropical regions of the
world.
• Known as white gold, also known as king of fibers.
• Cotton is derived from Arabic word al quotn. It was then
called as algodon in Spanish, katoem in Dutch, coton in
French and finally it is known as cotton in English.

144. •Is mainly grown in Dang, Banke, Bardiya, Kailali, Kanchanpur
districts of Nepal.
• The major five producer of cotton are:
China
India
USA
Brazil
Pakistan
Uzbekistan
• The area and production of Cotton is drastically decreased.
Although, Cotton Development Board (CDB) was established
under NARC but now it is just of name but no works.

145. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF COTTON
• It is a part of our daily lives from the time we dry our
faces on a soft cotton towel in the morning until we
slide between fresh cotton sheets at nights.
• It has hundred of uses, from hats to shoe laces.
• It is a cash crop so is considered the crop that spreads
wealth faster than any other crop through the social
community.

146. Fiber:
• The long cotton fibers (lint) are used to make
clothes and other products like towels, carpets or
sheets.
• The short fibers (Fuzz) can be used in the paper
industry.
• Most notably, the fiber is used to
manufacture hydrophilic cotton (cotton wool),
compress, gauze bandages, sanitary towels, and
cotton swabs.
• Fabrics made from cotton put forth natural
comfort, visual appeal, durability and value.
• Chemists have made cotton fireproof (flame
resistant) apparel, tarpaulin (sheet of heavy
waterproof cloth), rot proof, shrink proof, and
wrinkle-resistant.
Fig: Cotton
fiber

147. Fuzz:
•Short fibers which are left on the seed after
removal of long fibers through ginning are
known as fuzz.
•The percentage of fuzz varies from 1 to 10 % in
cultivated species.
•The mean value of fuzz in Asiatic species varies
from 4.3 to 5.9 per cent.
•They are used in making high grade writing
paper, tissue papers, rayon, photographic paper, x-
ray films, shatter proof glasses, surgical cotton
and several other items .
Fig: Cotton swabs
Fig: Elastic bandages
Fig:Tissue papers

148. Cotton seed:
• The cotton seed is crushed in order
to separate its three products- Oil,
Meal, hulls.
• Depending on varieties, it contains
20-30% semi-drying edible oil (Iodine no. 102)
used for cooking. American cotton contains
high oil.
• Fatty acids acquired from oil are employed in the
preparation of insecticide, fungicides and plastics, etc.
• The meal and hulls that remain are used either
separately or in combination as livestock, poultry, and
fish feed and as fertilizer.
• The hull is used for mulching material.
Fig: Cotton seed

149. Cotton seed cake:
• It is mainly a protein fraction of the
seed which contains about 40% protein.
• The quality of any protein is
determined by its amino acids
composition.
• Cotton seed protein contains 70 % of
the essential amino acids and serves as
a important concentrated feed for
livestock.
• Not only that, cake is the good organic
manure contains 5 %N, 3%P2O5 and
2%K2O.
Fig: Cotton oil seed cake

150. Cotton stem:
• Used as organic manure or fuel.
• Used for manufacturing of particle boards, pulp and
paper, hard boards, corrugated boards and boxes, micro
crystalline cellulose, cellulose derivates and as a
substrate for cultivation of edible mushrooms

151. Cotton Leaves:
• Used as organic manure (as in-situ green manuring).
• Cotton leaves contain citric acid (4.2- 7.2 per cent) and
malic acid (13.6- 16.5 per cent). Hence cotton leaves can
be used for production of these two organic acids.
• Fed to animals.
•Historically, due to a toxin produced by the cotton plant,
gossypol, the stem and leaves have been unable to be used
as a feedstock but in recent developments cotton plants
have been produced with the gene for gossypol production
'switched off' so now the woody part of the plant can be
used as animal feed.

152. Gossypol
• Gossypol is a polyphenol isolated from the seed, roots,
and stem of the cotton plant (Gossypium sp.).
• The substance, a yellow pigment similar to flavonoids, is
present in cottonseed oil.
• In the plant, it acts as a natural defensive agent against
predators, provoking infertility in insects.
• It permeates cells and acts as an inhibitor for several
dehydrogenase enzymes.
Formula: C30H30O8
Molar mass: 518.563 g/mol
Boiling point: 707 °C
Classification: Aldehyde
Melting point: 177 to 182 °C (351 to 360 °F; 450 to 455 K)
(decomposes)

153. Gossypol: C30H3008
 The most common
toxic effects is
the impairment of
male and female
reproduction.
 Another important
toxic effect of
gossypol is its
interference with
immune function,
reducing an animal's
resistance to
infections and
impairing the
efficiency of
vaccines.

154. Origin and History
• According to Munro (1987), India is considered to be homeland
of G. arboreum but G. herbaceum was possibly introduced into
western India from Arabia from race acerifolium.
• However, Purseglove (1968) argued that herbaceum is more
primitive than arboreum cotton.
• The only cotton with spinnable lint in nature is G. herbaceum
var africanum and is considered to be the probable ancestor of
all linted cotton (old world and new world).
• The africanum cotton still exists in wild parts of southern
Africa.

155. G. herbaceum var africanum (Cr. 13) x Lintless wild american cotton (Cr. 13)
New world linted cotton (Cr. No. 26)
G. hirsutum G. barbadense
• Mention in Rig-Veda and Dharma Shastra : The excavations of Mohen – jo-
daro indicates a high degree of art in spinning and weaving with cotton at that
time
• India appears to have been the centre of an important cotton industry as early as
1500 B.C.
• The cultivation of Cotton spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy
hybridization polyploidy
specification

156. Classification:
• Genus Gossypium includes 20 species of cotton including
wild as well as cultivated species.
• The cultivated species have spin able lint while wild species
have only short seed fuzz or smooth seeds.
• According to classification by Hutchinson (1947) the
following four cultivated species contain almost all the
varieties.
a. G. arboreum (n= 13)
b. G. herbaceum (n= 13)
c. G. hirsutum (n= 26)
d. G. barbadense (n= 26)
Desi cotton(Diploid)
American cotton
(tetraploid)

157. 1. Gossypium arboreum (2n=26)
• It is a perennial and also called tree cotton, much branched
shrub, or an annual sub-shrub 1.5-2 m tall.
• Its twigs and leaves are pubescent (hairy)
• Fruit is boll, trilocular, tapering with prominent oil glands.
• Fiber length =1.25 - 2.1cm.
• Seeds are small, numerous, 6-17 per locules.
• Seeds have fuzzy hair, well-developed root system and
drought tolerant.
• It is native to India, Pakistan and other neighboring countries

158. 2. Gossypium herbaceum (2n=26)
• It is a sub-shrub, 1-1.5 m tall, its stem thick and leaves horizontally placed.
• Leaves and twigs are sparsely hairy and rarely glabrous (smooth).
• Fruit is rounded, beaked, 3 - 4 locular with 11-12 seeds per locules.
• Seeds have short fuzz and lint.
• Traditionally grew in African open forests and grasslands.
• First cultivated in western Sudan and spread to India before introduce to Egypt

159. 3. Gossypium hirsutum (2n=52)
• Upland cotton and about 90% of the world production
• Cultivars like Acala, Delta pines, and StoneVille belongs to this species (27-30 mm
staple length).
• This is a small annual shrub, 1-1.3 m tall.
• The stem is usually green or brown with leaves and twigs glabrous.
• Boll is rounded, 3-5 locular with 5-7 seeds per loculus.
• Seeds bear copious lint hairs and thick fuzz.
• Fiber length =1.8 - 3.1 cm

160. 4. Gossypium barbadense (2n=52)
• Known as sea island cotton (extra long staple cotton) and
covers 8% of total cotton production.
• It is a perennial or annual sub-shrub, 1-3 m tall.
• Twigs and leaves are glabrous or densely coated with long
gray hairs.
• Leaves are highly lobed.
• Bolls are large, round and bold and 5-8 seeds per locules.
• Seeds are bold with no fuzz.
• The lint is of finest quality with extra long staple length (3.6 -
5.0 cm,).
• This is used in luxury fabrics.

162. Practical No.5
Study of characteristics of different cultivated species of cotton

163. Structures of cotton plant

165. Morphology of cotton
Root
• Cotton has a taproot grows quickly and it can reach a depth of 20-25 cm before the
seedling has even emerged above ground.
• Final depth of root system depends on soil moisture, aeration, temperature and
variety but is usually about 180-200 cm.
Stem
• Cotton plant consists of an erect main stem and a number of lateral branches.
• Vegetative branches , monopodial are morphologically similar to the main stem.
They do not bear flowers or fruits directly, but carry secondary branches (fruiting
branches), that are characterized by their sympodial growth habit.
Leaves
• Leaves are generally hairy
• The leaves are spirally arranged on the branches,
• have long petioles and
• have 3–5 triangular lobes.

167. Branching
• Nodes give rise to main stem leaves and branches.
• Main stem leaves and branches are spirally arranged on the stem
above the cotyledonary node.
• Two types of branches are produced: monopodial are the
vegetative branches and sympodial are the fruiting branches.
• Monopodial branches are structurally similar to the main stem.
• Growth is from a single terminal bud and tends to grow in an
upright position.
• Sympodial branches are produced by the main stem and
monopodial branches

169. • Fruiting branches have a “zig-zag” growth habit, as opposed
to the straight growth habit of the vegetative branches
• The initial growth of a fruiting branch is terminated once a
fruiting bud forms.
• The fruiting branch, however, initiates a new growing point,
called an axillary meristem.
• The axillary meristem is located at the base of a leaf that
subtends the newly formed fruiting bud.
• The “zig-zag” growth habit is a consequence of the stop-and-
go growth of the fruiting branch.

170. Floral Bud
• Floral bud is enclosed in and protected by, three triangular
bracts. The whole structure is called a "SQUARE"
• five petals of the corolla, wrapped tightly around one
another.
• Flower is large, axillary, terminal and solitary.
• red-purple, yellow or white in color
• The innermost bud of the lowest and oldest branch is the
first to open while the outermost bud of the highest and
youngest branch is the last to do so.
• Self-pollination is the general rule in cotton.
• Cross-pollination in cotton may vary from zero to 20 per
cent. Pollen heavy -----no wind pollination

171. Fruit
The development of fruit (boll) begins with the fertilization,
and shedding of withered floral organs enclosing it.
• The boll consists of 4-6 locules each of which contains number
of seeds. Majority of Asiatic cottons has only upto 7seeds per
locales.
• Bolls of Hirisutum are large (5-8 g), pale green, smooth –
skinned and with few oil glands
• arboreum are much smaller (3 g) dark green, covered with
numerous glands.

172. Flowering in cotton
• Flowering follows a spiral course beginning with the
innermost bud on the oldest and lowest sympodial branch
and ending with the outermost bud on the youngest and
highest sympodium.
• The opening of flower takes place in two directions, vertical
and horizontal.
• The vertical interval is the period from the opening of the first
flower on the first sympodium to the opening of first flower
on the second sympodium is approximately 3 days (2-3 days)
• horizontal interval along each sympodium equals to 6 days (5-
7 days).

175. Practical No. 6
• Study of branching and flowering of cotton

176. Growth stages of cotton

177. Germination phase -4-7 days
Early vegetative phase
Squaring- it may be from 35-70DAS depending upon
oThe variety
o Location and
o Management
Flowering
o 20-35 days after first square formation
o It continues for 60-80 days
o However peak flowering is 70-100 DAS

178. Boll development
oWithin 15-18 days boll attains 90% size
o Mature size is attained within 25 days
o Cotton fibre develops from the outermost cells of the
seed-coat
o Fibre elongation is complete by day 21-24
o Secondary wall thickening strengthens the fibre and
continues up to 30-40 days after anthesis

182. Practical No. 7
• Study of growth stages and life cycle of cotton

183. • Since ancient time its cultivation started in Nepal but the
scientific cultivation of cotton started from 1971. with the
establishment of HetaudaTextile factory.
• Especially perennial type of cotton was cultivated. Charka
(locally made thread separator made by wood) was used to
weave yarn and made the cloth by using Tan (locally made
cloth weaving machine made by wood-Hand loom).
• In 1973-74, the UNDP has introduced American Upland Cotton
in Nepal for Cash Crop Development Programme. It played as
the milestone to shift from cultivation of perennial cotton to
annual type of cotton in cotton history of Nepal.
• Cotton is mainly cultivated in Banke, Bardiya, and Dang
district of Nepal where about ……..hectare area is covered by
cotton with ……. productions (MoALD, 2079/80).

184. • Tamcot S.P. 37 is the recommended variety of cotton which was
popular in the initial days, however nowadays medium staple
length variety H-1098 is popular
• The garment industry, started during the late 1970s, has developed
into one of the major industrial activities within a span of 20 years.
There are 250 big and small textile companies registered in Nepal.
• According to Cotton Development Board, Nepal there is about 400
tons of lint cotton unsold in Nepal. It is because textile industries
use low cost imported yarn. But recently they have declared their
stock empty. (RSS, 2023)
• Government decided through the budget for the coming fiscal year
2080/81 which is scrapping the Cotton Development
Board, Khajura, Banke (The Rising Post, RSS, June 3, 2023)

185. Reasons of reducing trend of cotton production:
1. Cotton-water relations:
• Water need in cotton varies with cultivar, length of growing season,
temperature, sunshine hours, the amount and distribution of rainfall and the
characteristics of soil.
• Water stress is the single greatest environmental limitation to achieve higher
percentages of the inherent yield potential.
Water logging:
• This problem is accentuated by rainfall after irrigation, cloudy conditions and
inadequate land preparation.
• On heavy clay soils adequate field drainage and slope and a high plant bed
height are essential to reducing the effects of water logging.
• It reduces the yield and the general symptom is yellowing of the crop and
stunted growth.

186. Water impacts:
• It can take more than 20,000 liters of water to produce 1 kg of
cotton; equivalent to a single t-shirt and pair of jeans.
• 73% of global cotton harvest comes from irrigated land (as
documented in the WWF report. The Impact of cotton on
Freshwater Resources and Ecosystem.)
2. Unfavorable climatic conditions:
• Successful cotton production requires a frost free growing season
of at least 180-200 days, ample light, relatively high
temperatures and favorable moisture regime.
3.Abnormal soil conditions:
• High soil pH, calcareousness of soils, low soil organic matter and
use of fertilizer poor in micronutrients lead to soil encrustation.

187. • The local varieties are highly susceptible to diseases and insect pests.
• The popular varieties of upland cottons (G. hirsutum) are Cocker 100,
Acala-4-42, Acala-44, Deltapine, Tashkent-6 and C4727. In Nepal we
cultivate Tamcot S.P.-37 and H-1098.
5. Seed constraint:
• A delay in sowing results in later start of flowering and fruiting and a
reduction in number of flower and bud produced.
• In Nepal, cotton is a rainfed crop and optimum time of its sowing ranges
from the last week of June to first week of July.
• Where irrigation facilities are available, sowing can be done in April-May.
variety Year of
release
Origin Yield
potential(Mt/ha)
Maturity
(days)
Recommendat
ion domains
Tamcot
S.P.-37
1977 America 0.9 60-70 Terai

188. • Low seed rate:
The seed rate of cotton varies from 15-80 kg per ha.
There is no yield difference when the plant a density varies
from 50,000 to 100,000 plants per ha.
Yield sharply declines at the population below 30,000 per ha.
• Defective method of sowing:
Line sowing with seed drill is recommended in order to ensure
uniform germination, better stand and easy inter-cultivation.
Generally, sowing is done in flat beds but ridges and furrow
method is practiced in many places to facilitate easy application
of irrigation water.
• Unavailability of quality seed materials:
Low viability seeds is susceptible to number of pests and
diseases which leads to decreased production.
Non availability of certified seeds and prohibitive prices of
hybrids is also another problem for the farmers.

189. • In cotton cultivation responses are most commonly obtained from N than from any
other nutrient. Nitrogen is essential for crop establishment, vegetative growth.
• Cotton has a low P requirement but has a definite role in
improving root development, water use efficiency, seed
production, protein and oil content of seed. Deficiency of
phosphorus causes dark green leaves, delayed flowering and
fruiting and shedding of boll.
• In Nepal, recommended dose is 6t FYM and 60:40:20 kg NPK
per ha.
7. Plant protection constraints:
• Poor condition of farmers-non adoption of protection
measures
• Non availability of chemicals and equipments
• Lack of knowledge on control measures.

190. 8. Market and trade conditions
• Poor market facilities
• Difficult procedure for exporting of cotton and its products in foreign
market.
9. Inadequate research infrastructures:
• To improve cotton’s productivity, need to be very area specific, the
country containing at least eight different agro-ecological zones.
• The greatest potential for increased production exists in the Terai,
where the flat land is most suitable for modern farming methods.
10. Competition with cereals and other crops:
• generally grow cereal and other crops.
• poor marketing facilities.
• Less importance to cotton crops.

191. 11. Ecological disasters and crop failure
• Massive pesticide spraying causes massive pest outbreaks.
• The boll weevil has been a major cotton pest .
• pesticides also introduced serious health and environmental
problems.
12.High incidence of diseases and pest:
• Cotton is a pest loving plant and due to this habit it has
become a problematic crop for the farmers
• Major insects: Cotton aphids, Spotted bollworm, Mealy bug,
Red cotton bug, Thrips, Leaf Hopper, Ash weevils, Tobacco
cutworm, Leaf roller, Stem borer, Shoot weevil, Cotton stem
weevil, Pink bollworm, Fruit borer
• Diseases: Cotton seedling diseases, Root-knot nematodes,
Leaf spots, Bacterial blight, Wilts, Bronze wilts, Boll rots, Black
root rot, Fusarium wilt,Verticillium wilt
Leaf curl virus disease in the popular G. hirsutum cultivars.

192. 13. High input cost:
• Cost associated with spraying, weeding and harvesting.
• Pesticide costs are high and can contribute up to 50% of
the input costs.
• Inadequate use of mechanization, contributes
significantly to high production cost.
14. Decrease in cotton growing area:
• Less importance given to the cotton crop.
• Incidence of cotton boll worm.
• Fields left barren but cultivation is not done.

193. 15. Harvesting:
• Hand picking is costly and labour intensive.
• The appropriate time of harvesting is when most of the leaves
are dried or in shedding stage or when bolls begin to fully burst
and when cotton begins to hang out.
• Improper harvesting techniques and lack of modern harvesters.
16. Migration:
•Migration-an age long phenomenon in which both young and
old human population move to new area to grab better life
•Devastating effect on labor force in cotton production due to
migration of young and vibrant people
•Dependency of resource poor farmers entirely on family labour
and it is their young and vibrant migrant groups that constitute
such labour.

194. 17. Miscellaneous constraints:
• Lack of machinery
• Losses during storage
• Losses during processing

195. Climatic and edaphic factors

196. Temperature:
• Cotton is a heat loving (thermophilic) plant and a linear
relation has been established between heat units and
cotton yield.
• It is moderately tolerant to heat.
• Plant grown in areas with mean annual temperature above
20°c.
• It grows under many variations of the continental hot
summer to hot deserts where irrigation is feasible.
• It can be grown from sea level to an elevation of 1200-
1500m but low temperature at higher elevations limit
cotton production.
• For Asiatic cottons the temperature requirement during
vegetative phase is 21-27o C and below 15oC it makes
hardly any growth.

197. • Growing degree days requirement of 2000-2640 hours on
base temp of 10°c.
• The cardinal temperature for germination and seedling
growth are minimum 16ᵒC, optimum 34ᵒC and maximum
39ᵒC respectively.
• The optimum night temperature is 15-20ᵒC. and below the
optimum temperature it favors the development of
vegetative branches
• It is very sensitive to low temperature during the flower bud
initiation so temperature above 21ᵒC is desirable.

198. • During flowering and fruiting temperature of 26-32ᵒC are
desirable during the day and night should be cool.
• Frost is harmful for its growth and development and requires
a lengthy frost free period, approximately 180-200 days.

199. Moisture:
• Cotton is drought resistant plant due to its well-
developed root system.
• It absorbs moisture from sub-soil layers and can
withstand short period drought.
• It requires moderate to fairly large amount of water.
• As a rainfed crop, it is grown in regions receiving 500-
2000 mm rainfall.
• A well-distributed precipitation of 900-1000 mm
during vegetative phase helps in better growth and
yield of cotton.

200. • Before squaring, when the assimilating surface is relatively
small, the cotton plants don’t consume much water but
during squaring and flowering their demand of water greatly
increased.
• It requires 5-8 thousand cubic meter of water per hectare
during vegetative period.
• Moisture stress restrains vegetative growth and encourages
early flowering.
• The 70-80 days plants are more affected by different moisture
regime.

201. • The moisture regime affects the appearance of the flowers
and length of flowering period.
• Favorable moisture regime lengthens the flowering period so
that the number of flowers produced is increased.
• If during the fruiting period heavy showers of rains occur or
irrigation is applied, shedding of the flowers and young bolls
may result.
• Transpiration coefficient varies from 400-1000.

202. Wind:
• The mild blowing wind is favorable as it supplies fresh CO2
improves photosynthetic rates also increase boll retention
• Wind plays a major role in transpiration.
• High speed winds increases the transpiration as a result
the plant face moisture stress fast.
• Mechanical damage by wind to the cotton is not yet
observed however lodging is seldom observed.
• Windblown sand can lacerate the stems of seedlings, as
happens in dry weather of some abrasive soils.
• Windy weather can interrupt in spraying the insecticides
and other pesticides.

203. Light:
• Cotton is a sun loving, short day plant and cannot tolerate
shade particularly in the seedling stage.
• So high light intensity throughout the growing period is
essential for satisfactory vegetative development for minimal
shedding buds and bolls and hence high yields.
• In other words reduced light intensity reduces the rate of bolls
set and caused excessive vegetative growth.
• Abundant sunshine during the period of boll maturation and
harvesting is essential to obtain good quality produce.
• Light intensity of 400-500 cd/cm2 /d is ideal for the crop.

204. Soil:
• Cotton can be grown on all types of soils except the
sandy, saline and waterlogged soils.
• It is grown on clay loam and alluvial soil.
• Plant has deep root system with persistent tap root
extending up to 3 m in its wild counterpart; the plant
is suited to semi desert habitat.
• Modern cultivated annuals however are confined to
depths of 30 cm and similarly laterally.
• The penetration of surface by roots is a limiting factor
mainly in clayey soils; the bulk density of soil should
be 1.8-1.9 gm./cc ideally.

205. • The drainage and aeration are essential.
• Heavy clay tend to delay maturity and increase vegetative
growth resulting in more insects and disease problems.
• Cotton needs a fertile soil with good moisture holding
capacity.
• The best soil pH for cotton is 5.8-6.5 but it is tolerant to wide
range (5.5-8.5).
• Cotton grown in acidic soils should be limed i.e. at 4.5 pH
3tons of lime is economically applicable.
• The ideal soil should be moisture retentive and contain a lot
of humus.

206. Cropping system
• Depends on the amount of rainfall, length of
growing season and soil.
• Cotton is good preceding crop for most of other
crops as it doesn’t exhaust the soil and add large
amount of OM to the soil.
• Cotton is alternated with perennial grasses as
Lucerne and annual legumes as Groundnut,
Soybean and other cereals as wheat.

207. • Cotton-Wheat
• Cotton-Berseem
• Cotton-Chickpea
• Cotton-Field Pea
• Mixed cropping with Sesamum, Finger millet,
Groundnut, Castor, Chillies etc.

208. Field preparation
• Cotton being a deep rooted crop requires well
prepared seed bed after the harvest of preceding
crops.
• Thus the field preparation consist of ploughing at a
depth of 15- 20 cm with MB plough followed by 3-4
harrowing, or 4-5 ploughing with desi plough and each
ploughing is followed by planking to make the soil
pulverised and levelled.
• In case of normal monsoon, the land should be
prepared with 1-2 cross harrowing. This may help in
conservation of moisture in the soil.

209. Seed preparation
• The seeds are prepared by;
i. Ginning: mechanical separation of long fibers from cotton
seed.
ii. Delinting: removal of fuzz from seed.
• Can be done mechanically in cotton gin or chemically by
immersing in conc. H2SO4 @ 70-100cc per kg of fuzzy seed for
6-12 minutes depending on cotton variety.
• Can also be treated with ZnCl2 for 10-15 min and then washed.
• Seeds can also be rubbed with paste made of cow dung, ash and
water and then dried in shade.

210. 1.Helps in killing hibernating insect larva or disease
pathogen present.
2.De-linted seeds are easy to sow as it germinates
rapidly and uniformly.
3.Reduces the seed rate.
4.Ease to treat with fungicidal powders against seed
borne diseases.
Seed treatment
• Soaking in solution of 5g Emisan, 1g Streptocycline,
1g succinic acid in 10 L of water for 6-8 kg delinted
seeds for 2 hours.

211. Seed rate, spacing and sowing depth
• A seed rate of 15-30 kg/ha in case of American
cottons and 10-18 kg/ha in case of Desi cottons is
recommended.
• A spacing of 60 cm x 45 cm for American cotton
and 60 cm x 30 cm for desi cottons is desirable.
• There is wide spacing in case of hybrid cottons in
all the regions: 90-120 x 60 cm
• In our Nepalese condition, 20-25 kg/ha of
cottonseed is recommended with spacing of 90 x
20-30 cm

212. • No yield difference in yield with plant population
from 50,000-100,000 plants/ha but drastic yield
reduction below 30,000 plants/ha.
• Plant density doesn’t effect the fiber properties.
• In irrigated condition, 10-15 plants/m2 is optimum.
• Normally, seed should be sown at a depth of 4-6
cm according to availability of moisture in the soil.
• In humid areas: 2.5 - 4.0 cm
• In drier areas: up to 8 cm

213. Gap filling and thinning
• There may be some gaps due to incomplete germination of
seeds.
• Immediately after the emergence of seedlings, gap should
be filled by dibbing water soaked seeds for quick
germination.
• On the other hand in case of excess seedlings that are weak,
diseased or damaged should be thinned out retaining robust
and strong plants.

214. Sowing time
• Timely sowing of cotton is the main factor to influence its
yield.
• A delay in sowing results in later start of flowering and
fruiting, which causes the reduction of the number of
flowers and bolls of cotton.
• The time of sowing in tropics and sub tropic region is
depending on the rainfall season, soil, and air temperature.
• Thus cotton is best planted when the soil at a depth of 20
cm has warmed up-to 16 oC and there is high probability of
air temperature of 20 oC for 10 days following planting.

215. • Normally, the crop is sown with the onset of monsoon in
the last week of June to first week of July.
• Where irrigation facility is available, the crop may be sown
little earlier i.e. in the first week of June.
• Advance sowing of the crop will give higher yield than
normally sown crop.
• In Nepal, cotton is a rain-fed crop and the optimum time of
sowing ranges from the last week of June to 1st week of
July.

216. Sowing method
• Seed sowing is generally done drilling in the rows.
• Line sowing with seed drill is recommended in
order to uniform germination, better stand and
easily inter cultivation.
• But in Nepalese condition it is done manually.
• Cultivated in flat beds but ridge and furrow are
more yielding

217. Manure and Fertilizers
• The organic manure@ 10 t/ha should be applied as this will help
in conservation of moisture, increase in aeration, soil drainage,
microbial activity and availability of nutrients.
• This will also help in improvement of soil structure.
• Soils tests provide an estimate of nutrient availability for uptake
by plants.
• Soil tests must be taken prior to planting and the soil amended
based on the laboratories recommendations for cotton.
• If possible soil samples should be taken at a depth of 8 inches, 24
inches and sometimes 36 inches.
• This will give an indication about nutrient movement in the soil
and uptake by the plants.

218. • Application of nutrients should be done well before the grand
growth period between 45-60 days. (maximum biomass yield
70 to 100DAS)
• Nutrient management in cotton is complex due to the
simultaneous production of vegetative and reproductive
structures during the active growth phase.
• The nutrient demand by the fruiting parts is very high.
• High nutrient demand at this stage results in reduction of root
growth due to less partitioning of assimilates to the root and
ultimately reduced capacity to absorb nutrients.

219. • A deficiency could result in hastening maturity.
• For every 100 kilogram of seed cotton produced the crop
depletes the soil by 6-7 kg N, 1.9-2.5 kg P, 6-8 kg K and 1.2-2.0
kg S.

220. Nutrient management in cotton has to be adjusted according to
the situation prevalent (soil type, moisture availability and crop
growth stage).
Table-1: Intake of nutrients at different growing period
S.N. Growing period Intake of nutrients
N & P K
1.
Seedlings emergence- Formation
of squares
3-5% 2-3%
2.
After formation of squares- Before
flowering
20-30% 15-20%
3. Flowering- Before ripening 65-70% 75-80%

221. 1.PRIMARY NUTRIENTS
1.1 Nitrogen:
Nitrogen is most common, high demanded, good responsive and
king in fertilizer nutrient to crops in early growing period .
It is essential for plant establishment, vegetative growth,
improving fruiting quality and seed cotton yield.
Nitrogen helps to increase plant height,
no. of fruiting nodes,
boll load(no. of boll /plant), LAI,
Dry matter yield, cotton yield.
Fig: N deficiency in cotton

222. Deficiency symptoms:
N deficiency symptoms first appear on the older leaves at the
bottom of the plant.
N is a mobile element and is rapidly translocated to the young
developing parts.
 Early season deficiency results in plants with pale green
yellowish leaves and stunted growth.
 Late season deficiency leads to reduced boll retention
Plants suffering from N deficiency, mature earlier and
vegetative growth is shortened.

223. Management:
It is most often the major limiting factor to cotton
production, after water.
 Both the excess and deficit conditions are harmful to
the plants.
Excess amount of nitrogen causes in more of
vegetative growth and delay maturity, more susceptible to
infestation by sucking pests, weakening of fibre and
thereby affects quality.
Foliar application of 3% N as urea at the boll
formation stage, takes care of the late season deficiency
For varieties, 50-60 kg N/ha is adequate and 90-120 kg
N/ha is recommended for hybrids.

224. Various management options are available to enhance
the NUE which are listed below.
 Use of coated urea fertilizers
Split application (1/2 as basal, ¼ at squaring and ¼
at peak flowering).
Spot or band placement