1. BuildingBuilding
&&
developing vocabularydeveloping vocabulary
in thein the
secondary yearssecondary years
Maryanne PearceMaryanne Pearce

2.
How can I assess
where my students
are at with their
vocabulary
knowledge?
How can I ensure
I’m catering for the
range of abilities
of my students?
How can I make
vocabulary
learning
engaging ?
How tools and scaffolds
support all learners?
How can I better
ensure that my
students apply their
vocabulary
learning?

3. Small moves
have a significant
impact on
student learning

4. Session Objectives
• To provide an overview of the research
to support explicit teaching of vocabulary
• To plan and organise learning to include
explicit vocabulary instruction and
learning opportunities
• To provide a range of practical strategies,
tips & tools
• Learn a few new moves and try them out

5. Why Teach Vocabulary?Why Teach Vocabulary?
• Vocabulary is highly correlated with readingVocabulary is highly correlated with reading
achievementachievement
• ““High-knowledge” third graders displayed aHigh-knowledge” third graders displayed a
roughly equal vocabulary to that of the lowestroughly equal vocabulary to that of the lowest
performing twelfth gradersperforming twelfth graders
• In Grade 1 the higher performing students
know two times as many words as the lower
performing students; by Year 12 those students
know four times as many words.

6. Matthew Effects in Reading
The Matthew Effects are not only about the
progressive decline of slow starters, but also
about the widening gap between slow
starters and fast starters.
In reading, the rich get richer and the poor
get poorer.
Stanovich, Keith E. (1986)

7. Once established,Once established,
this language gap is extremelythis language gap is extremely
difficult to narrow.difficult to narrow.

8. Word
Know it
well, can
explain
it, use it
Know some-
thing about
it, can relate
it to a
situation
Have seen
or heard
the word
Do not
know the
word
tyranny
serendipity
grapnel
purport
sensitive
dubious

9. Oral Langauge Development
In one of the best-known studies, Betty Hart and Todd
Risley (1995, 2003) followed young children from forty-two
families for two and one-half years. Thirteen of the families
were of a higher socioeconomic status (SES), ten were
middle SES, thirteen were lower SES, and six families were
on welfare. Hart and Risley found that “the
three year old children from families on
welfare not only had smaller vocabularies
than did children of the same age in
professional families, but they were also
adding words more slowly” (2003).

11. Vocabulary
One of the major areas of
literacy knowledge
Vocabulary can divide us
economically,
linguistically,
academically.

12. More reasons to teach
vocabulary
• important contribution of vocabulary
knowledge to reading comprehension
• vocabulary clusters around concepts
contribute to understanding & builds
schema
• contributes to phonemic awareness

13. • students need a repertoire of words to
compare objects, concepts, etc, so
vocabulary knowledge contributes to
thinking (Metsala, 1998)
• contributes to accurate decoding when
print is unfamiliar
• contributes to fluency (Torgensen, 2002)
~ familiar text = HIGH fluency
~ unfamiliar text = LOW fluency

14. Catching Up
• To directly teach students even 3,000 words a year
would mean teaching approximately 17 words each
school day (e.g., 3,000 words/180 school days).
• Estimates vary, but reviews of classroom intervention
studies suggest that, in general, no more than 8 to 10
words can be taught effectively each week.
• This means no more than approximately 400 words can
be taught in a year (Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986).

15. How do we learn new words & concepts?
• Experiences
• Reading
• Direct instruction
• Multiple encounters in meaningful
contexts
• Independent research
• Strategies and use
• Talk

16. Why vocabulary problems actually
increase as students grow older:
They have word finding problems
They often use low information words
and this habit has a negative impact on
their discourse skills
They rarely expand the meanings of
the words they do know
They read less than their peers

17. Lack of an adequate vocabulary can be a
crucial factor underlying the school failure of
disadvantaged students.
The most disadvantaged are EAL students,
those with learning difficulties, those who enter
school with a limited vocabulary and those who
do not read outside school hours (assuming
they also have plenty of reading at school).
One third of the words can be learned
through independent reading – provided that
the reading materials are rich in vocabulary.

18. There is a clear and urgent need for
vocabulary instruction in schools.
Loren Marulis and Susan Neuman
(2010) state:
“vocabulary is at the heart of oral
language comprehension and sets
the foundation for domain-specific
knowledge and later reading
comprehension.”

19. Four Major Challenges
1. How do we balance word learning with other
aspects of learning? How are you weaving it
through lessons?
2. Vocabulary knowledge is both a cause and a
consequence of reading achievement.
3. Vocabulary differences begin at home. The gap
increases as children move through school.
4. Learning about words involves more than
learning definitions. 70% of English words have
multiple meanings.

20. Vocabulary Learning
• Typical 3rd
grader knows about 8000 words
• Typical secondary student knows about
25,000 to 50,000 (or more)
• A student typically learn about 3000 –
4000 new words per year ( through
incidental learning and wide reading)

21. Tip #1: Independent Reading
‘Students who read for 25 minutes per day
meet about 2 million words in a year, and
20,000 are unfamiliar words; they will
meet commonly used words many times,
possibly in several different contexts. If
only one-twentieth of those words can be
figured out from context, this will provide
them with 1000 new words learned by
reading.’

22. Struggling & reluctant readers
Adolescents who don’t read well,
or who don’t read,
don’t develop new vocabulary
and so reading comprehension
is significantly diminished
or compromised.

23. The end of the school line.......
Senior examinations assess content
knowledge and students’ ability to
articulate knowledge and
understanding.
(this means they must have a precise
and mature vocabulary)

24. “ The lack of vocabulary instruction
might be a result of misconceptions
about what it means to teach
vocabulary and its potential effect on
student learning.”
( Marzano et al, 2001)

26. TIP # 2 Teach prefixes, suffixes, root
words
20 common prefixes account for
97% of the prefixed words in
printed school English.
(White, Sowell & Yanagihara, 1989)
Words are used to think. The more words we know,
the finer our understanding of the world.
(Stahl, 1999)

29. Australian Standards
English Year 7
“Understand how to use spelling rules and
word origins, for example Greek and Latin
roots, base words, suffixes, prefixes,
spelling patterns and generalisations to
learn new words and how to spell them.”

30. Australian Standards
English Year 7
“Investigate vocabulary typical of extended
and more academic texts and the role of
abstract nouns, classification, description
and generalisation in building specialised
knowledge through language.”

31.  Listening
 Speaking
 Reading
 Writing
Four Types of Vocabulary

32. Modes
• Receptive: listening
reading
• Productive: speaking
writing

33. Vocabulary research shows:
It is more effective to support all four types
of vocabulary for struggling students (NRP,
2001). Receptive and productive balance
Directly teaching word parts- affixes, base
words, roots - greatly enhance vocabulary
because 60% of English words have Latin or
Greek origins (Armbruster & Osborn, 2001).

34. Vocabulary building in 4 areas
• Think of a word that you find tricky and
one you usually avoid saying.
reading - speaking
• How can we promote the transfer of
students’ reading vocabularies into
writing?
reading - writing

35. Speaking
“Millions of dollars have gone into improving literacy
but without putting into place the oral base, then it’s
almost wasted. For some reason speaking and
listening has been seen as the ugly sister of reading
and writing but it’s actually the foundation.”
(John Munro, Associate Professor, University of Melbourne’s Graduate
School of Education)
“Oral language is the thread of all learning.”
Carmen Crevola

36. Talking and Listening must be
considered together
1. Language is the invisible thread that we carry around in
our heads that allows us to understand the thoughts of
others and express our own thoughts.
2. Research indicates that the level of oral language skills
is highly predictive of reading development and
warrants aggressive intervention to prevent reading failure.
(Catts, Fey and Tomblin 2004)
3. Many students arrive at school with insufficient
language to support learning… and this has increased
since 1995. ( Crevola and Vineis, 2004)

37. Planning for Learning
•In classrooms, many are talking at others, not
interacting through language.
•Receptive language precedes (in a spiralling way) to
productive language.
•Listening comprehension precedes ( in a spiralling
way) to reading comprehension.

38. Tip # 3
Provide many collaborative learning
opportunities

39. Reflection
“Reading and writing float on a sea of talk.”
James Britain
Data has a Face
•Do you know who your low language students are?
•Turn & Talk: How often do you focus on students’
speaking and listening in class? Every day, once a
week, hardly ever?

40. Learning about words is
more than learning
definitions

41. Ownership of Words
Developing understandings of word meanings is
a long term process and involves many
encounters in varying contexts. Students store
some information about a word and the
information is reinforced and extended each
time the word is seen / heard. With each
encounter they learn more and gradually
acquire ownership of the word.
(Nagy, Anderson, Herman, 1987)

42. Ownership of Words
Monolingual learners 7 - 8 exposures
Bilingual learners 12 – 14 exposures

43. Vocabulary: Four steps to knowing
1.Never heard the word before
2.Heard it, but dont know what it
means
3.In context, I know it has something
to do with_____
4.Know it and use it
(Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002; Carey, 1978)

44. A good place to start
vocabulary development is to
raise word consciousness in
our students.

45. TIP #4 Use a rich vocabulary
# Informal conversations in class:
“ The plants are looking dehydrated
today”, not “dying”.
“The door is ajar”, not “open”.
Find lots of opportunities to increase students’
vocabulary understanding through daily talk.

46. Selecting VocabularySelecting Vocabulary
This following instructional approach to selectingThis following instructional approach to selecting
and teaching words is largely a summary of theand teaching words is largely a summary of the
work of Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, andwork of Isabel Beck, Margaret McKeown, and
Linda Kucan (2002).Linda Kucan (2002).
Bringing Words to Life:Bringing Words to Life:
Robust Vocabulary InstructionRobust Vocabulary Instruction

47. TIER 1 wordsTIER 1 words
Tier 1Tier 1 words consist of thewords consist of the most basic wordsmost basic words ––
Most students already know and use these and theyMost students already know and use these and they
appear frequently in speech and print. Theseappear frequently in speech and print. These rarely
require instructional attention. These are familiar
words used in oral conversation. HIGH utility
Some Tier I WordsSome Tier I Words
angry floor house clockangry floor house clock
dinner fast destroy babydinner fast destroy baby
brother ball happy walk bed sky run

48. Tier 2 wordsTier 2 words
Tier 2 words are high-frequency words in theTier 2 words are high-frequency words in the
vocabulary ofvocabulary of maturemature language users.language users.
Tier 2 words generally span aTier 2 words generally span a wide range ofwide range of
contextscontexts and areand are found across a variety of
knowledge domains. These are words that
students are less likely to know.
Some Tier 2 WordsSome Tier 2 Words
coincidence hostile industrious dynamic absurdcoincidence hostile industrious dynamic absurd
momentum benevolent merchantmomentum benevolent merchant coincidence
absurd industrious fortunate compromise diligent

49. Tier 2 Words are often barriers to
comprehension
These are words that students do not know
the meaning of in relation to what is being
studied (but you think they should/do know).
~ might be lack of context understanding
~ or they have never seen or heard the word
before (not in listening vocab, and they are
not seeing them in print because they are not
reading)

50. Teachers choose Tier 2 words for:
• Importance and utility: will they
be encountered often in unit/life?
• Instructional potential
• Richer concept understanding
Eg. these three in a text contextEg. these three in a text context
might be useful to consider:might be useful to consider:
industrious dynamic momentumindustrious dynamic momentum

51. Tier 3 words – Academic LanguageTier 3 words – Academic Language
Tier 3Tier 3 are words/concepts which areare words/concepts which are
sophisticated and highly specialized; they aresophisticated and highly specialized; they are
relatively infrequent in both speech and print;relatively infrequent in both speech and print; low
frequency, specific to content, academic
language. Key wordsKey words should be identified andshould be identified and
taught in units of study, clarified & defined.taught in units of study, clarified & defined.
Some Tier 3 WordsSome Tier 3 Words
isotope peninsula oboe coronerisotope peninsula oboe coroner
cacophony tundra diadochokinesiscacophony tundra diadochokinesis

52. Line form risk detest remote sumLine form risk detest remote sum
futile ukulele good symmetryfutile ukulele good symmetry
metamorphosis rescue antennae walkmetamorphosis rescue antennae walk
neutralneutral lurchlurch sinister revolutionsinister revolution
Classify the following wordsClassify the following words

53. Unit Plan
Content Knowledge Skills development
Essential vocabulary

54. Tip #5: Explicit Teaching & Learning
• Identify Tier 2 and 3 words in each unit
and ensure everyone has a deep
understanding
• Provide opportunities in class for students
to acquire this language (receptive to
productive modes)
• Use HW to build and embed vocabulary
and conceptual knowledge and use

55. Selecting Tier 2 WordsSelecting Tier 2 Words
• Select words from within aSelect words from within a relevant contextrelevant context
1. Choose fiction or non-fiction text being read in class - from a
unit of study
2. Read one page
3. Highlight all the Tier 2 words
4. Select 3 of the most useful ones
(Select words which are(Select words which are versatileversatile ~ naturally used across~ naturally used across
a variety of contexts, both literal and figurative whena variety of contexts, both literal and figurative when
possible, select words which arepossible, select words which are highly relevanthighly relevant to theto the
theme and mood of the text/unit of study, select wordstheme and mood of the text/unit of study, select words
which are likely to be ofwhich are likely to be of high frequencyhigh frequency, and, and easilyeasily
relatedrelated to the studentsto the students’ daily lives.)’ daily lives.)

56. Prerequisite for Selected WordsPrerequisite for Selected Words
The only limiting factor for choosing vocabulary wordsThe only limiting factor for choosing vocabulary words
for instruction is that thefor instruction is that the target word must be abletarget word must be able
to be explained into be explained in terms familiar to the learnersterms familiar to the learners..
Examples:Examples:
comfortingcomforting – when something helps you feel better or– when something helps you feel better or
more calmmore calm
glanceglance – when you look very quickly at something– when you look very quickly at something

57. Teach vocabulary
with
new labels for known or familiar concepts
Eg: glanceglance – when you– when you look very quicklylook very quickly atat
somethingsomething

58. Additionally, secondary teachers should understand
and make the distinction between
teaching vocabulary
&
teaching concepts

59. Research indicates that direct vocabulary instruction
should incorporate these elements
• Presenting individual terms and their descriptions in
rich contexts
• Asking students to generate information about terms
• Using multimedia methods (words, pictures,
animations, and so on) to introduce and practice
terms
• Asking students to relate new terms to words they
already know
• Providing multiple exposures to new terms and
opportunities to use those terms in the classroom

60. Think and plan with BDA
Before the reading
During the reading
After the reading

61. Selecting text/s
• The first step is to determine the complexity of the text to be read in class.
Consider the quantitative qualities of the text, such as word difficulty, the
frequency of higher-level vocabulary, sentence length, and text length.
Qualitative facets must also be taken into consideration; for example, the
levels of meaning, structure, language conventions, and knowledge
demands of the text. Finally, the reader must be taken into consideration:
their cognitive abilities, reading skills, personal prior knowledge and
experiences, and motivation for reading the text. Lexile.com
• The next step, according to Lapp and Grant, is selecting a short, but
complex, passage for students to read. To get the students engaged in the
reading, the first text reading should be followed by a class or group
discussion about it. The second reading of the same text should be
followed by annotations, text-dependent questions, and more
discussion.

62. Activity 1
Identify vocabulary Before the reading
•Read The Flowers short story or Polar
lands (NF)
•Identify Tier 2 words that you will explicitly
teach the meaning BEFORE the reading.
•These are words that YOU believe that
students need to know to access FULL
meaning of the story.
•Discuss your selections with others.

63. Tier 3: Academic Language
This language is part of a cognitive toolbox for
undertaking content area tasks
Must be taught to access full understanding
Merely immersing marginalized students in
rich classroom discussion will not catch them up
Use ritual structure (better to use some techniques and
tools repeatedly rather than intermittently or worse, a different
one every time)

64. Application of New VocabularyApplication of New Vocabulary
Students must be able to define wordsStudents must be able to define words in their ownin their own
languagelanguage - be careful of dictionary definitions.- be careful of dictionary definitions.
StudentsStudents must be able to use the wordmust be able to use the word in a variety ofin a variety of
contextscontexts..
Students must beStudents must be given opportunities to usegiven opportunities to use theirtheir
vocabulary words.vocabulary words.
Students must be able toStudents must be able to use new words from all tiers.use new words from all tiers.

65. Teaching vocabulary
takes less time
than teaching concepts.
Teaching concepts requires building
the conceptual base
AND
adding labels (vocabulary words ) to
the concept.

66. Teaching concepts involves
direct instruction about an idea for which
students currently have little, confused
understanding, or no understanding or
familiarity with it in a particular context.
e.g. Technology Studies concept: System

67. Activity #2
• Consider a CONCEPT you are currently
teaching.
• Write and draw student friendly language
and visuals you could put around this
concept to allow for varying entry points
into understanding its use in the context.
• Examples: form, tone, bias, mathematical
operations (this is the metalanguage of
your subject)

68. Tip #5 Plan Instructional
strategies
• Read Aloud – teacher only
• Shared reading – everyone can see it
• Rich reading experiences to expose
students to words they would not
normally encounter – Read Aloud,
shared reading, independent reading
Consider short texts

69. More Instructional strategies
• Word walls/ classroom charts –
organised alphabetically or by topic or
concept
• Students create lists and keep in a word
bank
• Graphic organisers
• Audio assisted reading – students able to
read well beyond their independent
reading level with audio support

70. Sites
• www.wordnik.com students can create their own vocabulary list for
a unit being studied and keep updating them throughout the unit. They will need to
create an account to use this feature
• http://www.ironicsans.com/thsrs/ Shorter
Thesaurus is particularly good for helping weaker students acquire new
vocabulary. When you enter a word, it only gives you short synonyms
• www.visuwords.com/ my favourite - a visual dictionary
Year 9-12 range. This website is a visual dictionary/thesaurus. Students type in
a word, and the page presents a visual, colour coded (for nouns, verbs,
adjectives etc...) concept chart linking the word to synonyms.
• Stormboard.com

71. Tip #6 Plan instructional
strategies
• Definitions may include pictures, drawings or
contextual information – particularly useful for
content areas as so many words are specialised
(Tier 3 words)
• Provide opportunities for students to clarify
vocabulary and ideas in shared reading/partner
reading: reciprocal teaching routine
• Allow speaking and writing opportunities to process
and embed new words and ideas

72. More Instructional strategies
• Cloze activities – leave the first paragraph
intact but delete key words you are learning.,
ask students to fill in the blanks using the
word bank (HW, assessment)
• Build background knowledge and make
connections to their lives and experiences
with new vocabulary

73. Supports to enhance permanent
memory
Marzano recommends:
• Multiple exposures to information
• Deep processing - adding details
and elaboration - making associations
• Use graphic organisers

74. Marzano’s five step process for teaching
vocabulary
• STEP 1: Present students with a brief explanation or
description of the new term or phrase.
• STEP 2: Present students with a non linguistic
representation of the new term or phrase.
• STEP 3: Ask students to generate their own
explanations or descriptions of the term or phrase.
• STEP 4 : Ask students to create their own non
linguistic representation of the term or phrase.
• STEP 5: Periodically ask students to review the
accuracy of their explanations and representations.

75. Be aware of words
Before, During and After (BDA)
reading
• Direct instruction
• Explain and contextualise tricky words before
a cold reading
• Design small group activities related to
vocabulary understanding and development

76. Tip #7 Build Background
Knowledge
The relationship between
vocabulary knowledge and
background knowledge is explicit
in research.
(Nagy & Herman, 1984; Marzano, 2004; Hart & Risley, 1995)

77. BBK Activity Step 1
• Select a topic
• Find a song, poem, political cartoon,
photograph that relates to the topic.
• Place students in groups of 4.
• Ask students to write down what they think
the “text” is about. Discuss.
• Create a visualisation of their collective
knowledge
• Whole Group: share existing knowledge

78. Step 2
• Provide the same groups with a provocative
text, an article or an essay. It needs to be
interesting, and one with multiple
perspectives.
• Participants read. Ask them to CODE the text
(N) for new information.
• Add that to the original web in a different
colour.
• Share.

79. Step 3
• Expert text/ Use a variety of media
(timelines, short biography, cartoons,
letters to the editor, portions of a novel)
• Every group gets this folder and each
student selects what they want to read.
• Code (N) again.
• Each participant shares their new
knowledge with the group. Add to chart in
a different colour.

80. Step 4
• Return to the First text and now write
about what they know in the light of new
information.
• Did they change any views?
• Do they know more about the topic now?
• Are they curious about the topic?

82. Before and During Reading
Aim: To build background knowledge
How: Partner and Group work ~ provides
students with a peer scaffold and this
supports student friendly meanings and that
helps them build understanding
Teacher: these are useful formative
assessment tools.

83. Tip # 8 Graphic Organisers
Lotus Plan
Black Holes Theories Life Forms
Extra
terrestrial Universe Planets
Matter Gases Time & Space

84. Lotus Plan – Going Deeper
Universe
Planets

85. Concept Circles Assessment:
Circulatory System
Veins
Large
intestines
Heart
Arteries
Salivary Glands
Blood
carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Describe the meaning and relationships between and among the words in the
sections of the concept circles. (Which word does NOT belong?)
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

86. Concept Circles Assessment:
Vocabulary Teaching and Learning
Describe the meaning and relationships between and among the words in the
sections of the concept circles.
What words would you place in the First Circle? How they are
they related?
What words would you put in the second circle? How are they
related?
Pedagogy
Vocabulary

87. migrate
Schwartz & Raphael, 1985
To move regularly from one
region to another
people working
for seasonal jobs
birds Nomads
traveling
relocating
moving around
What are some examples?
What is it like?What is it?

88. Word Map
What is it?
Scaffold
What are some examples?
What is it like?

89. Frayer Diagram 1
Definition Characteristics
Examples Non-Examples
First, last week of school.
Sitting on the porch reading
Unexpected guests for dinner Bubble bath
Four projects due Lounging by the pool
Stress, anxiety, tension, hostility,
Tears, physical symptoms
An extreme state of agitation.
SWIVET

90. Frayer Model
Term Visual Representation
Definition Personal Association
sphere
A round 3-D shape My ball is
the shape
of a sphere.

91. Frayer Diagram
Definition Characteristics
Examples Non-Examples
What is a Noun?

92. Definition
Characteristics
Non-ExamplesExamples
Frayer Model (Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969)
Content for this example taken from Baron & Heideima, (2002) Teaching Reading in
the Content Areas (Supplement), McRel.
herd
• Group
• Like animals
• Clustered
a congregation of wild
animals

93. Definition Characteristics
Non-ExamplesExamples
Frayer Model (Frayer, Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969)
Content for this example taken from Baron & Heideima, (2002) Teaching Reading in
the Content Areas (Supplement), McRel.
Prime
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
17, . . .
1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10. . .
• 2 is the only even prime number
• 0 and 1 are not prime
•Every whole number
can be written as a
product of primes
A whole number with
exactly two divisors
(factors)

94. After Reading Strategies

95. VVWA (Verbal & Visual Word Association)
Readence, Bean, & Baldwin, 2001
Term Visual Representation
Definition
a degree of wetness
especially of the atmosphere
Personal Association
humidity

96. Vocabulary Notebooks
• Students keep a log or journal to
record what they are learning
•Teacher provides a concept or word.
•Students write quickly & spontaneously
(free write/quick write) everything they
know about the word.
•Peer and/or teacher response.

97. Concept Circles
Why? ___________________________________________________
Which word does
not belong?
Cone
Rectangle
Trapezoid
Hexagon

98. Dialectical Journal Graphic Organiser
Quote or reference
(What it says)
What it means Why it is important

99. Unemployment
Poverty
H
obo
Stock m
arket
collapse
Concept: The Depression

100. 4-2-1 summariser
Four Two One
Rogers, et.al (1999). Motivation and Learning. . .

101. Assessing Vocabulary Knowledge
We want to know if students have a grasp of
the meanings of the vocabulary words we
have used in our study/unit.
Consider designing pre tests and post tests to
assess vocabulary knowledge, HW and Cloze
activities.

102. Learning Goals for Students
• Know how to identify which words are
most important to understanding a ‘text’
• Knowing a word that will be
frequently/sometimes used in the
text/topic OR across many situations in life
• Know how to apply word-learning
strategies for each type of word, for the
rest of their lives

103. Four essential vocabulary learning
components comprise:
1. teaching individual words; (everyone)
2. teaching strategies for learning words
independently; (who does this?)
3. fostering word consciousness; (everyone)
4. Providing frequent, extensive, and varied
opportunities to engage in independent
reading. (who does this?)

104. High Expectations
• “To ignore vocabulary teaching is
tantamount to hindering students’
reading comprehension.”
• “Further, to ignore the vocabulary
development of disadvantaged
students raises serious ethical
concerns.”

105. References
Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002; Carey, 1978

106. References
A Handbook for Classroom Instruction
that Works
Marzano, , Norford, Paynter, Pickering, Gaddy (2001)
Words, Words, Words
Janet Allen (1999)

107. International Reading Association
2010
World Congress
Auckland, New Zealand
• Dr Maureen McLaughlin, East Stroudsburg University , PA,
USA
• Dr Diane Barone, University of Nevada, NV, USA