The document provides guidance on writing academic paragraphs, including their typical structure and components. It states that paragraphs generally have three parts: a topic sentence, body sentences, and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence is the most general statement and introduces the overall idea. Body sentences then provide supporting details to explain or develop the topic sentence. Finally, the concluding sentence summarizes the key information presented in the paragraph. The document also offers tips on incorporating details, maintaining formality, and using transition signals and reporting verbs in academic paragraphs.

1. ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS & STYLE
A PARAGRAPH consists of several sentences that are grouped together to discuss
one main subject.
In typical formal academic English, paragraphs have three principal parts. These three
parts are:
TOPIC SENTENCE BODY SENTENCES CONCLUDING SENTENCE
The Topic Sentence
A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually
the first sentence in a formal academic paragraph.
Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but, more importantly, it
is the most general sentence in a paragraph.
What does "most general" mean? It means that there are not many details in the
sentence, but that the sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later
in the paragraph.
For example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural landmarks
of the place where you grew up. The first part of your paragraph might look like this:
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features. First, it is noted for the Paramattta River, which is well
known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. Also, in the surrounding hills there
were many suitable pasture lands for livestock and sheep farms.
(Question – do your paragraphs need to be indented? What formats are there for
paragraphs?)
Note how the first sentence, The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for
several important and impressive natural features is the most general statement. This
sentence is different from the two sentences that follow it, since the second and third
sentences mention specific details about the town's features, and are not general
statements.
Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. Can you
figure out why they are inappropriate?
#1: My town is famous because it is located along the Parramatta River, which
is well known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. Also, in the surrounding hills
there were many suitable pasture lands for livestock and sheep farms
#2: There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic
transmission and two reasons why others like cars with manual transmission.

2. #3: Clouds are white.
The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are
general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would
be like the one mentioned above,
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features.
Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not
just one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences
should also be about only one main thing.
The problem with sentence #3 is that it is too general. It is also very simple (bordering
on boring …).
Sentences #2 and #3 can be re-written in the following ways to make them better:
There are two reasons why some people like to buy cars with automatic transmission.
OR (in a different paragraph):
There are two reasons why some people like cars with manual transmission.
The shapes of clouds are determined by various factors.
Supporting Sentences
Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph:
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features. First, it is noted for the Paramattta River, which is well
known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. Also, in the surrounding hills there
were many suitable pasture lands for livestock and sheep farms.
When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as The place where I grew up, Parramatta,
is famous for several important and impressive natural features, a question should
usually arise in the reader's mind.
In this case, the question should be like, "What are the natural features that make
Parramatta famous?" The reader should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will
give an answer to this question.
Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence.
We can see that the second sentence in the paragraph, First, it is noted for the
Parramatta River, which is well known for its role in Sydney’s early transport indeed

3. gives an answer to this question.
That is, the second sentence gives some explanation for the fact that this town is a
famous town. Similarly, we can see that the third sentence also gives some explanation
for the fact that Parramatta is famous by giving another example of an " important and
impressive natural features," in this case, “many suitable pasture lands”.
The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences.
They are called "supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in
the topic sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two
supporting ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At
minimum, you should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph.
Here we can see our paragraph about Parramatta with a few more supporting sentences
in bold font:
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features. First, it is noted for the Paramattta River, which is well
known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. Also, in the surrounding hills there
were many suitable pasture lands for livestock and sheep farms. Another feature is
the fact that the weather patterns over the region are mild and stable, which means
that crops can also be grown when the pastures are not used for sheep or cattle.
The Concluding Sentence
In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph
which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the concluding
sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
You can see how a concluding sentence operates with this example.
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features. First, it is noted for the Paramattta River, which is well
known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. Also, in the surrounding hills there
were many suitable pasture lands for livestock and sheep farms. Another feature is the
fact that the weather patterns over the region are mild and stable, which means that
crops can also be grown when the pastures are not used for sheep or cattle. These
three natural features have always been important for Parramatta and have made it
famous in Sydney’s history.
Notice how the concluding sentence, These three natural features have always been
important for Parramatta and have made it famous in Sydney’s history, summarises
the information in the paragraph. Notice also how the concluding sentence is similar
to, but not exactly the same as, the topic sentence.
Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph
is very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a
concluding sentence, and to say something which might lead the reader on to the next
section (using transition signals).

4. Details in Paragraphs
The short, simple paragraph used here is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks
details.
Whenever possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to help your
reader understand exactly what you are writing about. You need to develop the topic
with more information.
In the paragraph about Parramatta, three important natural features are mentioned, but
we do not know very much about them. They haven’t been developed.
For example, we could add a sentence or two about the Parramatta River concerning
HOW it was used it is or WHY it is called by that name. Consider this revision (and
note the additional details in bold):
The place where I grew up, Parramatta, is famous for several important and
impressive natural features. First, it is noted for the Paramattta River, which is well
known for its role in Sydney’s early transport. The river channel, though relatively
narrow, was deep enough to allow the early ships to be able to transport the people
and to bring supplies. It was also good for tourists who saw the many eels swimming
along the river (“parramatta” means ‘river of eels’ in the local aboriginal tribe’s
language). Also, in the surrounding hills there were many suitable pasture lands for
livestock and sheep farms. These hills were of the rolling type and were often divided
by small creeks which fed fresh water into the main river. Another feature is the fact
that the weather patterns over the region are mild and stable, which means that crops
can also be grown when the pastures are not used for sheep or cattle. As a result,
Parramatta was one of the main sources of food for the early settlers in Sydney
Town and for the surrounding Cumberland Plain. These three natural features have
always been important for Parramatta and have made it famous in Sydney’s history.
As you can see I also added more details to the paragraph to describe the other
important and impressive natural features of the area.
Why are details important? Without supporting details, your paragraph would not be
very interesting.
A Note on Formality
In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic paragraphs (and multi-
paragraph essays) are different from many other kinds of writing (such as letter
writing, narratives, recipes, procedural instructions etc etc) in that certain kinds of
expressions are not allowed.
For example, in formal essays, you should not use contractions such as don't or aren't.
Instead, you should write out the words in full, for example, do not and are not.

5. Also, in formal essays many believe that traditionally, you should try to avoid the first
and second person (controversial).
That is, do not use the pronouns I or you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used
in formal writing in some major fields, but in general you should not use these unless
you are certain that they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows
them. It is safer simply to use the third person.
A Note on Reporting/Citation Verbs
You should try to vary the reporting verbs that you use in introducing the words, ideas
and findings of other writers. Some verbs indicate a neutral attitude on the part of the
writer, while others indicate the writer’s attitude – positive or negative - to what is
being reported. Some verbs indicate your own attitude towards the validity of the
writer’s work. Consider the following examples:
Alami (2002) reports that there are great cost savings to be derived from outsourcing.
Wong (2003) claims that the negative impact of job losses incurred by outsourcing
will outweigh the apparent economic benefits.
Nguyen (2004) shows that the negative impact of job losses incurred by outsourcing
outweigh the apparent economic benefits.
Note that some reporting verbs need to be followed by a noun or a noun phrase. For
example:
Smith (1999) discusses the effects of outsourcing on fixed and variable costs.
argues
points out
discusses
defines
asserts
describes
suggests
indicates
explains
analyses
remarks
affirms
states
challenges
maintains
draws attention to
notes
implies
concludes
proves
presents
questions
looks at
refers to
mentions
observes

6. A Note on Tense and Citation Verbs
Use the PRESENT TENSE to refer to the thoughts, ideas and statements of authors.
The present tense here implies that these concepts recorded in a published text
have a continued existence in the present.
Phillips notes that….
Olancin indicates/reports/claims.….. etc.
It is acknowledged that this data alone is not sufficient evidence (Browning, 1999).
Use the SIMPLE PAST TENSE to refer to what an author did or found out. The
simple past tense indicates that actions or events are located in a specific moment
of time, and that these actions have been completed.
Jennings (1998) conducted a large-scale survey into…
Through her website, Davis (2002) created a resource for environmental activists.
Miller (2003) examined the lives of IT students at work and at play.
Use the PRESENT PERFECT to report on the work that has been done more
generally in a particular field. The present perfect indicates that the research has
been done by different people over a period of time, beginning in the past and
extending up to the present:
Net analyses have been carried out for eight trajectories…
The research that has been carried out in this field by Wong (2004) and Jones
(2003)…
Several researchers have addressed the issue of internet privacy.

7. Chart of Transition Signals [Clause Connectors]
Meaning/Function Sentence Connector Coordinates Subordinates Others
To introduce an
Additional idea
also, too
besides, furthermore
moreover, in addition
and another (+ noun)
an additional (+noun)
To introduce an
Opposite idea
on the other hand
however, in contrast
Instead, nevertheless
nonetheless
but
yet
although
though
even though
whereas, while
in spite of (+ noun)
despite (+ noun)
To introduce an
Example
for example
for instance
an example of (+ noun
such as (+ noun) , e.g.
To introduce a
Restatement or
Explanation
indeed i.e.
that is
To introduce a
Conclusion or
Summary
in conclusion in
summary, to conclude
to summarize
To clarify
Chronological Order
first (second, third, etc.)
next, last, finally
first of all, meanwhile
after that, since then
before
after
while, until
as soon as
the first (+noun)
the second (+noun)
before the (+noun)
in the year since the
(+noun)
To indicate Order
of Importance
more important(ly)
most important(ly), above
all
the most important
(+noun)
To introduce an
Alternative
otherwise or if
unless
To introduce a Cause
Reason
for because
since
As
because of,
as a result of
as a consequence of
due to, to result from
the result of
the effect of X on Y
the consequence of
To introduce an Effect
Or Result
accordingly
as a result,
as a consequence
therefore, thus
consequently, hence
so the cause of,
the reason for
to result in, to cause
to have an effect on
to affect
To introduce a
Comparison
similarly
likewise, also
too
and as
just as
like, just like, alike
similar (to),
the same as
both…and,
not only…but
also,
to compare to/with

8. To introduce a
Concession
however
nonetheless
but
yet
although, though
even though
despite + noun
in spite of + noun
To introduce a
strong Contrast
however
in contrast
In (by) comparison
on the other hand
on the contrary
but different from, unlike
dissimilar, to differ fro
to compare to
to compare with
© 2002 Collaborative Academic Preparation Initiative. All rights reserved.
Evaluation and cautious language
It is usually wise to avoid forceful terms when expressing negative opinions about the
work of others. It is best to use more cautious or tentative terms. For example:
• This research tends to overlook certain features . . .
• There is a tendency in this paper to overstate the case for . . .
• This model is possibly not the most appropriate one . . .
• It seems unlikely that these findings could be validated by means of empirical
research, because . . .
• It would be helpful if the terms were defined more clearly, so that . . .
It is also better to use an impersonal rather than a personal approach where possible:
• Whereas these authors claim that . . . it is now generally recognised that . . .
• It is widely accepted that this kind of design can only provide . . .
• On the other hand, it could be argued that . . .
Where possible, provide reasons for your positive or negative judgements:
• This case is valuable because . . .
• These results are significant in that they . . .
• The evidence provided appears to be somewhat one-sided, given that there is
important evidence to the contrary, for example . . .
• The apparent justification for . . . is . . . ; however, one could cite other sources
(Jones, 1999; Wong, 2004) which would support the argument that . . .
• While this research provides a detailed analysis of . . . in the context of . . . , it
does not take into account the context of . . .
Sources:
IT Research Preparation (32144) Course Notes (UTS Autumn 2009)
http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/para.html (adapted)
http://lynx.csusm.edu/capi/resources/docs/chart_transition_signals.htm (adapted)