chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf

Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 2/6/2019 5:56 AM via UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL
AN: 882770 ; Phillips, Rhonda, Pittman, Robert H..; An Introduction to Community Development
Account: s7246381

AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Beginning with the foundations of community development, An Introduction to Community Development offers a
comprehensive and practical approach to planning for communities. Road-tested in the authors’ own teaching, and
through the training they provide for practicing planners and community developers, it enables students to begin
making connections between academic study and practical know-how from both private and public sector contexts.
An Introduction to Community Development shows how planners and community developers can utilize local
economic interests and integrate finance and marketing considerations into their strategy. Most importantly, the
book is strongly focused on outcomes, encouraging students to ask: what is best practice when it comes to
planning for communities, and how do we accurately measure the results of planning and development practice?
This newly revised and updated edition includes:
• increased coverage of sustainability issues;
• discussion of localism and its relation to community development;
• quality of life, community well-being, and public health considerations; and
• content on local food systems.
Each chapter provides a range of reading materials for the student, supplemented with text boxes, a chapter
outline, keywords, reference lists, and new skills-based exercises at the end of each chapter to help students turn
their learning into action, making this the most user-friendly text for community development now available.
Rhonda Phillips, Ph.D., AICP, is Dean of Purdue University’s Honors College, USA, and a Professor in the
Agricultural Economics Department. Previously, at Arizona State University, USA, she served as Professor in
the School of Community Resources and Development; Senior Sustainability Scientist at the Global Institute of
Sustainability; and Affiliate Faculty in the School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning. Rhonda is
author or editor of 18 books, including Sustainable Communities: Creating a Durable Local Economy (Routledge
Earthscan, 2013, co-editor). She is editor of the book series Community Development Research and Practice
(Community Development Society and Routledge) and serves as the President of the International Society for
Quality-of-Life Studies (www.isqols.org).
Robert H. Pittman, Ph.D., PCED, is Founder and Executive Director of the Janus Institute and Janus Forum,
USA, whose mission is to advance the community and economic development profession and help communities
in new and innovative ways. Attendees include leading community and economic developers from around
the country and overseas, state directors, corporate executives, and other stakeholders in community and
economic development. Pittman has held a number of executive positions in the field of community and economic
development, including Director of the Global Business Location and Economic Development Consulting Group
at Lockwood Greene, USA, and Deputy Director of the International Development Research Council (now
Corenet). He also served as Associate Professor of Economics and Director of the Community Development
Institute at the University of Central Arkansas, USA. Pittman is a widely published author and frequent speaker
in the field of community and economic development, and an Honorary Life Member of the Southern Economic
Development Council.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

“While there are plenty of books on community development, this book is very comprehensive,
covers most of the aspects of community development, and is perfect for undergraduate courses on
community development. The authors are well respected in the area of community development
with extensive experience and expertise.”
Muthusami Kumaran, Assistant Professor,
Nonprofit Management & Community Organizations, University of Florida, USA
“The topics are excellent and cover almost every facet of community development.”
Joan Wesley, Associate Professor, Urban and Regional Planning,
Jackson State University, USA
“The chapters are eloquent and accessible and provide a good introductory insight into the key
considerations associated with this subject.”
Adam Sheppard, JDL Course Director and Senior Lecturer,
Department of Geography and Environmental Management,
University of the West of England, UK
“I am attracted first by the sustentative content of the book. I especially like the first two parts that
cover the theoretical foundations of community development and the how-to’s of preparation and
planning. The numerous case studies are also essential to illuminate the theoretical points and show
that they work in practice.”
Martin Saiz, Professor, Political Science,
California State University, Northridge, USA
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Second Edition
Edited by
Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

First published 2015
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
The rights of Rhonda Phillips and Robert H. Pittman to be identiﬁed as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identiﬁcation and explanation without intent
to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
An introduction to community development / edited by Rhonda Phillips, Robert
H. Pittman. -- 2 Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Community development. 2. Economic development. I. Phillips, Rhonda,
editor of compilation. II. Pittman, Robert H., editor of compilation.
HN49.C6I554 2014
307.1’4--dc23
2014015459
ISBN: 978-0-415-70356-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-70355-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-76263-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Futura
by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Contents
List of Figures viii
List of Tables ix
List of Boxes x
List of Contributors xiii
Acknowledgements xix
Editors’ Introduction xx
PART I
Foundations 1
1 A Framework for Community and Economic Development 3
RHONDA PHILLIPS AND ROBERT H. PITTMAN
2 Seven Theories for Seven Community Developers 22
RONALD J. HUSTEDDE
3 Asset-Based Community Development 45
ANNA HAINES
4 Social Capital and Community Building 57
PAUL MATTESSICH
5 Sustainability in Community Development 72
STEPHEN M. WHEELER
6 The “New” Local 89
JENI BURNELL AND RHONDA PHILLIPS
7 Community Development Practice 103
JOHN W. VINCENT II
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTENTS
vi
PART II
Preparation and Planning 123
8 Community Visioning and Strategic Planning 125
MICHAEL MCGRATH
9 Establishing Community-Based Organizations 154
MONIECA WEST, PATSY KRAEGER, AND TIMOTHY R. DAHLSTROM
10 Leadership and Community Development 178
ALAN PRICE AND ROBERT H. PITTMAN
11 Community Development Assessments 190
JOHN W. VINCENT II
12 Community Asset Mapping and Surveys 213
GARY PAUL GREEN
13 Understanding Community Economies 225
HAMILTON GALLOWAY
PART III
Programming Techniques and Strategies 239
14 Human Capital and Workforce Development 241
MONIECA WEST
15 Marketing the Community 256
ROBERT H. PITTMAN
16 Retaining and Expanding Existing Community Businesses 267
ROBERT H. PITTMAN AND RICHARD T. ROBERTS
17 Entrepreneurship as a Community Development Strategy 278
JOHN GRUIDL AND DEBORAH MARKLEY
18 Arts, Culture, and Community Development 295
RHONDA PHILLIPS
19 Housing and Community Development 313
RHONDA PHILLIPS
20 Neighborhood Planning for Community Development and Revitalization 324
KENNETH M. REARDON
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTENTS vii
21 Measuring Progress 345
PART IV
Issues Impacting Community Development 361
22 Perspectives on Current Issues 363
PAUL R. LACHAPELLE
23 Community-Based Energy 375
RHONDA PHILLIPS
24 Community and Economic Development Finance 383
JANET R. HAMER AND JESSICA LEVEEN FARR
25 Conclusions and Observations on the Future of Community Development 398
Index 403
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Figures
1.1 Community Development Chain 9
1.2 Community and Economic Development Chain 17
3.1 Community Needs Map 47
3.2 Community Assets Map 47
3.3 A Community Development Process 50
6.1 Springhill Cohousing Project 92
6.2 Committee of Lost Memories Pop-Up Shop 96
6.3 Framework for Food Cooperatives and Community Development 98
13.1 Less than High School Education Attainment 228
13.2 Community Economic Development Leaky Faucet 234
16.1 Economic Development Activities Performed by SEDC Members 270
21.1 Sustainable Seattle Happiness Initiative 352
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Tables
2.1 Concerns and Related Theories 24
8.1 Civic Index Worksheet 144
9.1 Some Federal Programs for Community Development 159
9.2 Charitable Foundations 167
9.3 Faith-Based Organizations 167
9.4 Public–Private Partnerships 170
11.1 Subjective Rating of Location Factors for Anytown 207
11.2 Factor Rating: Bayshore County 211
13.1 NAICS Hierarchy 226
13.2 Example of Levels in NAICS Coding 226
13.3 Sample Region Data and Analysis 230
17.1 Rate Your Community Support for Entrepreneurs 290
19.1 Housing Typology 315
20.1 Proposed Action Plan 333
21.1 Functions of Indicators 348
21.2 Sample Best Practices Survey Instrument 356
24.1 Summary of Sources and Uses of Funds 394
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Boxes
1.1 Evolution of Community Development 4
1.2 The Underrepresented 5
1.3 Community Well-Being: The Next Generation for Community Development? 10
1.4 Growth vs. Development 11
1.5 Osceola, Arkansas: Community Development Turns a Declining Community Around 15
1.6 Different Definitions of Community Economic Development 16
Case Study: Vermont Sustainable Jobs Fund 18
2.1 Theory to Inform Action 23
2.2 Social Justice and Community Development In a Changing World 27
2.3 Power 38
Case Study: Community Development and International Conflict Resolution 40
3.1 Vision Statement from Ruidoso, New Mexico 51
3.2 Online Support for Placemaking 53
Case Study: Asset Building on the Shores of Lake Superior 55
4.1 Capacity Factors 59
4.2 Building Community Capacity, Capital, and Development via Philanthropy 60
4.3 Appreciative Inquiry (AI): A Brief Overview 63
4.4 28 Factors that Influence the Success of Community Building 66
Case Study: The Good News Garage 69
5.1 The United Nations’ (UN) Millennium Development Goals—Striving for Sustainability
across Dimensions of Well-Being 74
5.2 Gauging Sustainability in the Regional Vancouver Urban Observatory 75
Case Study: City of Santa Monica, California’s Sustainable City Program 84
6.1 The History of Slow Food and a Delicious Revolution: How Grandma’s Pasta
Changed the World 97
Case Study: Creating Small Change in Stirchley Park, Birmingham, UK 99
7.1 “Peace Corps for Geeks”—Technology for Community Governance 104
7.2 Community and Economic Development Training and Certification 104
7.3 Crowdsourcing for the Common Good: A Community Development Approach 105
7.4 Community Development Values and Beliefs 107
7.5 A Place-Based Community Economic Development Approach via the Resource
Center for Raza Planning 110
7.6 How Community Development Created Economic Development in Slovakia 115
Case Study: Mayville and Lassiter County 119
8.1 Heart & Soul Community Planning 127
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

xi
BOXES
8.2 The Civic Index: A Tool to Qualitatively Assess Civic Infrastructure 142
Case Studies:
Eau Claire, Wisconsin 150
Dubuque Iowa’s Vision 151
9.1 Change Agents: Social Entrepreneurs: Meet Doug Rauch, Founder of the Daily Table 156
9.2 University—Community Development Connection: The Great Cities Institute 160
9.3 Community Development Corporations (CDCs) In Massachusetts 163
9.4 The Acenet Cooperative 164
9.5 Cooperatives and Community Development 165
9.6 Council of Foundations 166
9.7 Community Foundations 166
9.8 New Ideas: Social Beneﬁt and Proﬁt Merge-Hybrid Corporations 168
9.9 Faith-Based CDCs 169
Case Study: The Future Melting Pot: From Community Action to the Formation of
A Cooperative Community Interest Company Bringing Change to NEET Youth in
Birmingham, England 173
10.1 Youth Leadership Development: The UNESCO Chair Program in Rural Community,
Leadership and Youth Development 178
10.2 Leadership in Community Development 180
10.3 What Does it Mean to Be a Leader? 181
10.4 Community Development Values and Beliefs 186
Case Study: Bayshore County Competitive Assessment 210
12.1 Capturing Community with Storytelling 220
Case Study: Hazelwood Community Asset Map: Assessing the Services, Needs,
and Strengths of Hazelwood’s Community Service Providers 223
13.1 The Creative Class at the Local Level 227
13.2 Some Limitations of Economic Base Theory 233
13.3 Industry Clusters and Supply Chains 235
Case Study: Plugging the “Leaks” in a Community’s Economy—The Case of Martha’s
Vineyard 237
14.1 A Pressing Global Issue: Youth Unemployment 243
14.2 Vermont Works for Women 244
14.3 The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians 249
Case Study: Collaborating to Develop a High-Tech Workforce in Tulsa, Oklahoma 252
15.1 Examples of Economic Development Marketing Slogans 259
15.2 Suggestions for Effective Economic Development Websites 262
15.3 Some Success Factors for Development Marketing 264
15.4 Some Failure Factors for Development Marketing 264
Case Study: Buffalo Niagara Region 265
16.1 Job Growth in US Driven Entirely By Start-Ups, According to Kauffman Foundation Study 268
16.2 Can Potholes Cause Local Businesses to Relocate? 270
16.3 Strengthening Communities with Locally Owned Businesses 272
16.4 Early Warning Signs of a Possible Business Relocation, Downsizing or Closure 273
16.5 How to Conduct BRE Interviews and Surveys 275
Case Study: The Center for Continuous Improvement 276
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

xii BOXES
17.1 Two Ideas about Entrepreneurship 279
17.2 Meet a Business Entrepreneur 280
17.3 Meet a Civic Entrepreneur 281
17.4 Change Agents: Social Entrepreneurs 282
Case Study: Fairfield, Iowa: An Entrepreneurial Success Story 292
18.1 Indigenous Community Development 296
18.2 Arts and Culture in Rural Development 297
Case Study: Leitrim Sculpture Centre and Design House 298
18.3 Elements for Attracting Heritage Tourists 302
18.4 Tourism Destination Planning 303
18.5 Creative Placemaking 305
Case Study: Agritourism: Connecting Farms, Communities, and Consumers 308
19.1 Housing Policy Innovation in Europe 315
19.2 Housing Affordability 317
19.3 Burlington, VT, Cohousing East Village 319
Case Study: Springhill Cohousing, Stroud, England (as Told by Resident Max Comfort) 320
20.1 Crowdsourcing 337
Case Study: Promoting Citizen Participation in Neighborhood Planning 337
21.1 Community Outcome Measurement Practices 346
21.2 Perspectives on Indicators Research 348
Case Study: The Art of Being Happy: The Story of Costa Rica’s APOT (Asociación de
Productores Orgánicos de Turrialba) 357
22.1 Community Development and Democracy 364
22.2 Marginalized Communities 365
22.3 Governance and Power 366
22.4 Holistic Approach 366
22.5 Control and Inequities 367
22.6 Rural Community Vitality 367
22.7 Community Sustainability 368
22.8 The Spiritual Divide 368
22.9 Defining Community Development 369
22.10 Evaluation and Measurement 369
22.11 Financing Community Development 370
22.12 Leadership 371
22.13 Tokenistic Approaches 371
23.1 Fort Collins, Colorado’s Net Zero Energy District Planning 378
Case Studies: Cooperative Energy 379
24.1 A Little Bit about Microfinance 385
24.2 “Crowdfunding” for the Community 391
Case Study: Tangerine Plaza 393
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Contributors
Jeni Burnell studied architecture at the University
of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia,
before pursuing a career in participatory arts,
community development, and design. She has
a Master’s in Development and is Research
Associate at the Centre for Development and
Emergency Practice (CENDEP) based at Oxford
Brookes University, UK. Jeni is Chair of the
development initiative, the Small Change
Forum, and Director of the architecture practice,
Space Program Ltd.
Timothy R. Dahlstrom, Ph.D. is a faculty asso-
ciate in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona
State University, USA. His research interests
include entrepreneurial development programs,
the nexus of business and government, and
organizational leadership. He has practice
experience in public entrepreneurial financing
programs, small organization consulting, and
public–private partnerships.
Jessica LeVeen Farr is Regional Community
Development Manager for Tennessee for the
Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Nashville
Branch, USA. She works with banks, nonprofit
organizations, and government agencies to
develop programs that promote asset building,
affordable housing, job creation, and other
related community development initiatives.
Previously, Farr was Assistant Vice President
at Bank of America in Nashville in the
Community Development Corporation (CDC),
where she oversaw the single family housing
development program. Farr received her
Master’s in City Planning from UNC-Chapel
Hill with an emphasis on community economic
development in 1999. She graduated from
University of California, San Diego, USA, in
1993 with a BA in urban studies.
Hamilton Galloway is an economist and
consultant with extensive experience working
in the US as well as the UK on economic
research and labor market analysis. Mr. Gallo-
way’s primary focus is on helping organiza-
tions understand economic development
opportunities, workforce needs and education
linkages through economic modeling tech-
niques. He has led numerous strategic planning
and development projects, ranging from work-
force development to comprehensive economic
development strategies. Galloway has also
provided research and assistance in areas of
international business finance and large-scale
adjustments, including NASA’s shuttle program
shutdown and Maytag’s closure. He has
authored numerous academic papers and
several book chapters. Galloway is a frequent
speaker at national conferences about know-
ledge economies, data-driven analysis for
regional decision making and new methods of
estimating the impacts of further and higher
education.
Gary Paul Green is a professor in the
Department of Community and Environmental
Sociology at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison, USA, and a community development
specialist at the University of Wisconsin–
Extension. Green’s teaching and research
interests are primarily in the areas of
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTRIBUTORS
xiv
community and economic development. He
received his Ph.D. at the University of
Missouri-Columbia, USA, and has taught at
the University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA,
for the past 20 years. His recent books include
Mobilizing Communities: Asset Building as a
Community Development Strategy (Temple
University Press, 2010); Introduction to
Community Development: Theory, Practice,
and Service-Learning (Sage, 2011); Asset
Building and Community Development, 3rd
ed. (Sage, 2012); and Handbook of Rural
Development (Edward Elgar, 2014). In
addition to his work in the US, he has been
involved in research and teaching in China,
New Zealand, South Korea, Uganda, and
Ukraine.
John Gruidl is a professor in the Illinois Institute
for Rural Affairs at Western Illinois University,
USA, where he teaches, conducts research,
and creates new outreach programs in
community and economic development. Gruidl
earned a Ph.D. in Agricultural and Applied
Economics from the University of Wisconsin-
Madison in 1989, with a major in the ﬁeld of
community economics. Gruidl has created and
directed several successful programs in
community development. From 1994–2005,
he directed the award-winning Peace Corps
Fellows Program, a community-based internship
program for returned Peace Corps volunteers.
Gruidl also helped to create the MAPPING the
Future of Your Community, a strategic visioning
program for Illinois communities. He currently
serves as Director of the Midwest Community
Development Institute, a training program for
community leaders.
Anna Haines is a professor in the College of
Natural Resources at the University of
Wisconsin–Stevens Point, USA, and a land use
and community development specialist with the
University of Wisconsin–Extension. Haines
received her Ph.D. from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison, USA, in the Department
of Urban and Regional Planning. Her research
and teaching focuses on planning and
community development from a natural
resources or environmental perspective. Her
research has focused on factors that inﬂuenced
land division in amenity-rich areas of
Wisconsin, understanding how zoning codes
affect future build out scenarios, examining
sustainable zoning, and understanding the
origination and resilience of local food clusters.
Her extension work has focused on compre-
hensive planning and planning implementation
tools and techniques, sustainable communities,
and property rights issues.
Janet R. Hamer is Senior Community Devel-
opment Manager with the Federal Reserve
Bank of Atlanta, Jacksonville Branch, USA.
Her primary geographic areas of responsi-
bility are north, central, and southwest Florida.
Hamer has over 20 years of experience in
housing, community and economic devel-
opment, and urban planning. Prior to joining
the Federal Reserve, she served as Chief of
Housing Services for the Planning and Devel-
opment Department of the City of Jacksonville
for three years. For the previous 18 years, she
served as Deputy Director of the Community
Development Department of the City of
Daytona Beach. Before moving to Florida,
Hamer was employed as a regional planner
in Illinois. She has a BA from Judson College,
Elgin, Illinois and an MA in Public Affairs from
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois.
Ronald J. Hustedde is a professor in the
department of community and leadership
development at the University of Kentucky,
USA. He teaches graduate courses in
community development and has an Extension
(public outreach) appointment. He is a past
president of the Community Development
Society and has served on the board of
directors of the International Association for
Community Development (based in Scotland).
His community development work has focused
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTRIBUTORS xv
on public issues deliberation, public conflict
analysis and resolution, leadership devel-
opment, and rural entrepreneurship. He has a
Ph.D. in sociology from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison, USA, with three other
graduate degrees in community development,
agricultural economics, and rural sociology.
Patsy Kraeger received her Ph.D. in Public
Administration from the School of Public Affairs
at Arizona State University (ASU), USA. She
has worked in the public, nonprofit, and private
sectors. She is also a faculty associate at the
ASU School of Public Affairs. She has published
in academic and practitioner journals and
presented at scholarly and professional confer-
ences; her area of focus is on strategic nonprofit
management and social enterprise devel-
opment.
Paul R. Lachapelle is Associate Professor in the
Department of Political Science at Montana
State University–Bozeman (MSU), USA, and
serves as the Extension Community Development
Specialist. Working in partnership with the MSU
Local Government Center, his responsibilities
involve providing research, technical assistance
and training on various community development
topics including community strategic visioning,
local governance, and leadership development.
Paul earned his Ph.D. at the University of
Montana’s College of Forestry and Conser-
vation with a focus on natural resource policy
and governance. He has conducted research
and taught in both Montana and internationally,
doing applied research in Nepal as a U.S.
Fulbright Scholar, working with Inuit in several
arctic national parks with Parks Canada in the
Canadian Territory of Nunavut, and working in
South Africa and Guinea, West Africa. Paul is
author of many peer-reviewed journal articles
on local governance and strategic planning.
Michael McGrath is Chief Information Officer
of NCL and Senior Editor of the National Civic
League. He edits the award-winning National
Civic Review, a 99-year-old quarterly civic
affairs journal, and is the organization’s chief
blogger. Before joining NCL, he was a reporter
and feature writer for Westword newspaper in
Colorado and an associate editor of the East
Bay Express in Berkeley/Oakland, California,
USA, covering environmental policy and local
and state government. His freelance articles
have appeared in magazines, newspapers,
and online publications. Recently, he
researched and authored a report on local
government and civic engagement for PACE:
Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement. He
has a Master’s degree from UC Berkeley’s
Graduate School of Journalism and a Bache-
lor’s degree (general and comparative studies)
from the University of Texas, Austin, USA.
Deborah Markley is Managing Director and
Director of Research for the Rural Policy
Research Institute’s Center for Rural Entrepre-
neurship, a national research and policy center
in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. Her research has
included case studies of entrepreneurial support
organizations, evaluation of state industrial
extension programs, and consideration of the
impacts of changing banking markets on small
business finance. She has extensive experience
conducting field-based survey research projects
and has conducted focus groups and inter-
views with rural bankers, entrepreneurs,
business service providers, venture capitalists,
small manufacturers, and others. Her research
has been presented in academic journals, as
well as to national public policy organizations
and congressional committees.
Paul Mattessich is the Executive Director of
Wilder Research, one of the largest applied
social research organizations in the United
States, dedicated to improving the lives of indi-
viduals, families, and communities. Dr.
Mattessich has done research, lecturing, and
consulting with nonprofit organizations, foun-
dations, and government in North America,
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTRIBUTORS
xvi
Europe, and Africa since 1973. His book on
effective partnerships, Collaboration: What
Makes It Work, (Wilder Publishing 2001, 2nd
ed.) is used worldwide, along with the online
Wilder Collaboration Factors Inventory. His
1997 book, Community Building: What Makes
It Work (Wilder Publishing) is widely recog-
nized and used by leaders and practitioners in
community and neighborhood development.
He received his Ph.D. in sociology from the
University of Minnesota, USA.
Rhonda Phillips, Ph.D., AICP, is Dean of Purdue
University’s Honors College, USA, and a
Professor in the Agricultural Economics
Department. Previously, at Arizona State
University, USA, she served as Professor in the
School of Community Resources and Devel-
opment; Senior Sustainability Scientist at the
Global Institute of Sustainability; and Affiliate
Faculty in the School of Geographical Sciences
and Urban Planning. Rhonda is author or editor
of 18 books, including Sustainable Commu-
nities: Creating a Durable Local Economy
(Routledge Earthscan, 2013, co-editor). She is
editor of the book series Community Devel-
opment Research and Practice (Community
Development Society and Routledge) and serves
as the President of the International Society for
Quality-of-Life Studies (www.isqols.org).
Robert H. Pittman, Ph.D., PCED, is Founder
and Executive Director of the Janus Institute and
Janus Forum, USA, whose mission is to advance
the community and economic development
profession and help communities in new and
innovative ways. Attendees include leading
community and economic developers from
around the country and overseas, state
directors, corporate executives, and other
stakeholders in community and economic
development. Pittman has held a number of
executive positions in the field of community
and economic development, including Director
of the Global Business Location and Economic
Development Consulting Group at Lockwood
Greene, USA, and Deputy Director of the
International Development Research Council
(now Corenet). He also served as Associate
Professor of Economics and Director of the
Community Development Institute at the
University of Central Arkansas, USA. Pittman is
a widely published author and frequent speaker
in the field of community and economic devel-
opment, and an Honorary Life Member of the
Southern Economic Development Council.
Alan Price is the founder of Falcon Leadership,
LLC. Since his retirement from Delta Air Lines in
2004, Captain Price has worked with clients
across the country and overseas in areas
relating to leadership development/crisis lead-
ership, strategic planning, safety systems,
communications, and team development. As
Chief Pilot for Delta’s Atlanta base, Capt Price
led the recovery efforts for the Atlanta base
following 9/11. His particular passion, which
grew out of these experiences, is leadership
during a time of crisis, a topic upon which he
has spoken extensively. Price was a first-in-class
facilitator for Delta Air Lines CRM program,
and Pilot Manager of the Human Factors
department. He developed and led Delta’s new
captain’s leadership program for five years
while conducting classes for over 2,000 new
captains. He was for many years a regular
contributor to Delta’s flight operations safety
magazine, Up Front, and has written exten-
sively in many publications on the topics of
leadership, safety, and CRM. Capt. Price is a
frequent speaker, workshop developer, and
master facilitator for a range of topics dealing
with leadership/crisis leadership, teamwork,
communications, and strategic planning. He
holds a BS degree in engineering science from
the USAF Academy and a Master’s in Decision
Science from Georgia State University, USA,
and he has done postgraduate work at the
Georgia Institute of Technology in Man-Ma-
chine Systems Engineering.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Kenneth M. Reardon is Professor of City and
Regional Planning at the University of Memphis,
USA, and engages in research, teaching, and
outreach activities focused on issues related to
neighborhood planning, community devel-
opment, community/university partnerships,
and municipal government reform. Prior to
joining the Memphis faculty, Ken was Asso-
ciate Professor and Chair of Cornell Univer-
sity’s Department of City and Regional
Planning. He began his academic career as
Assistant Professor in Urban and Regional
Planning at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign where he helped establish the East
St. Louis Action Research Project.
Richard T. Roberts is a graduate of the
University of Alabama, who has practiced
economic development in three Southeastern
states and worked for a variety of communities
in Alabama, Mississippi, and Northwest
Florida. During the past 30 years, he has
managed both rural and metro chambers of
commerce, economic development authorities,
and a convention and tourism organization.
He has written marketing plans and existing
industry programs and has established and
organized multi-county as well as local
economic development programs. Mr. Roberts
currently resides in Dothan, Alabama and is
employed by the Covington County Economic
Development Commission.
John W. Vincent II is currently President of
Performance Development Plus of Metairie, LA,
a consulting company that he co-founded in
1993. The ﬁrm specializes in community devel-
opment, economic development and organiza-
tional development consulting. Mr. Vincent has
over 35 years’ experience in various profes-
sional and technical positions, and he is
currently an owner and board member of a
homeland security company. He holds a Bach-
elor’s degree in government from Southeastern
Louisiana University, USA, and a Master’s
degree from the University of New Orleans,
USA, in curriculum and instruction (adult
learning and development). He is a graduate
of the University of Central Arkansas’
Community Development Institute in Conway,
Arkansas, USA, and is a certiﬁed Professional
Community and Economic Developer.
Monieca West is an experienced economic and
community development professional. In 2001,
she retired from SBC-Arkansas where she had
served as Director of Economic Development
since 1992. She is a past chair of the Interna-
tional Community Development Society and the
Community Development Council and has
received numerous awards for services to
community organizations and public education.
In 2004, West returned to full-time work for the
Arkansas Department of Higher Education
where she is a program manager for the Carl
Perkins federal program which funds career
and technical education projects at the post-
secondary level. She also does freelance work
in the areas of facilitation, leadership devel-
opment, technical writing, association
management, and webmaster services.
Stephen M. Wheeler joined the Landscape
Architecture faculty at the University of Cali-
fornia at Davis, USA, in January 2007. He is
also a member of UCD’s Community Devel-
opment and Geography Graduate Groups. He
previously taught in the Community and
Regional Planning Program at the University of
New Mexico, USA, where he initiated a
Physical Planning and Design concentration,
and the University of California at Berkeley,
USA, where he received his Ph.D. and Master
of City Planning degrees. He received his Bach-
elor’s degree from Dartmouth College, USA.
Professor Wheeler’s areas of academic and
professional expertise include urban design,
physical planning, regional planning, climate
change, and sustainable development. His
current research looks at state and local
planning for climate change, and evolving built
landscape patterns in metropolitan regions.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

This page intentionally left blank
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Acknowledgements
Like community development itself, creating a book
on the subject is a team effort. We are thankful first
of all to the chapter authors who have graciously
consented to share their professional knowledge
and experience with the readers. While the editors’
and authors’ names appear in the book, so many
other community and economic development
scholars and practitioners have played important
roles in bringing this book to fruition. One of the
most rewarding aspects of studying and practicing
the discipline is learning from others along the way.
This volume reflects the collective input over
decades of countless community developers who
may not be cited by name in the book but have
nonetheless had a profound impact on it.
We also wish to express our thanks to Routledge
and the Taylor & Francis Publishing Group. Their
expert assistance throughout the process of
updating this book is acknowledged and appre-
ciated. And finally we owe our families much grat-
itude, for without their support and encouragement
this book would not exist.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Editors’ Introduction
In this edition, we continue to explore community
development as a complex and interdisciplinary
field of study—one that is boundary spanning in
its scope and multidimensional in its applications.
Why is this? It’s because community development
concerns not only the physical realm of community,
but also the social, cultural, economic, political,
and environmental aspects as well. Evolving from
an original needs-based emphasis to one that is
more inclusive and asset-based, community devel-
opment is a now a distinct and recognized field of
study. Today, scholars and practitioners of
community development are better equipped to
respond to the challenges facing communities and
regions. Because its applications are wide-ranging
yet always aimed at improving quality of life and
overall community well-being, it is important to
understand the underlying foundations and theory
of community development as well as the variety
of strategies and tools used to achieve desired
outcomes.
This text seeks to address the challenging and
exciting facets of community development by
presenting a variety of essential and important
topics to help students understand its complexities.
The chapter authors represent perspectives from
both academe and practice, reflecting the applied
nature of the discipline. Importantly, this book
emphasizes the strong link between community
development and economic development which is
all too often overlooked in the literature. We believe
a discussion of one is incomplete without a
discussion of the other. We hope that this book will
serve to more closely align the study and practice
of these two inextricably related disciplines.
This text is presented in the spirit of community
development as planned efforts to improve quality
of life. With this goal in mind, 25 chapters
covering a range of issues have been selected
and organized into four major categories: (1)
foundations; (2) preparation and planning; (3)
programming techniques and strategies; and (4)
issues impacting community development.
Part I: Foundations, provides an introduction
and overview of the discipline as well as its under-
lying premises. In Chapter 1 we present the basic
concepts and definitions of community devel-
opment and how it relates to economic devel-
opment, a central theme of this book. Additionally,
we explore the history and foundations of
community development, including a rich legacy
of social action and advocacy. Chapter 2, Seven
Theories for Seven Community Developers, distills
a variety of ideas from different fields into a theo-
retical underpinning for community development.
Hustedde offers seven contextual perspectives that
provide this theoretical core: organizations,
power relationships, shared meanings, rela-
tionship building, choice making, conflicts, and
integration of paradoxes. Chapter 3, Asset-Based
Community Development, focuses on the concept
of capacity building, both inside and outside the
community. Haines explains the value of adopting
an asset-based approach, and how it is dramati-
cally different from the needs-based approaches
of the past. Mattessich explains in Chapter 4,
Social Capital and Community Building, how
social capital (or capacity) lies at the heart of
community development. Analogous to other
forms of capital, social capital constitutes a
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

xxi
EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION
resource that can be used by communities to guide
outcomes. Chapter 5, Sustainability in Community
Development by Wheeler, provides background
on the concept of sustainability and how it applies
to both the theory and practice of community
development and its relations to planning. It also
gives examples of strategies that can be imple-
mented to help increase sustainable approaches.
Chapter 6, The “New” Local by Burnell and
Phillips addresses newer ideas of the local
economy movement, along with small change
approaches. It includes a discussion of local
foods and community development. Chapter 7,
Community Development Practice, is the final
chapter in this section and outlines the foundation
of processes and applications introducing students
to community development as a practice.
Part II: Preparation and Planning covers the
variety of ways in which communities organize,
assess, and plan for community development.
McGrath’s Chapter 8, Community Visioning and
Strategic Planning, takes the reader through the
process of establishing goals and a vision for the
future—essential activities for success in com-
munity development. Without this foundation, it is
difficult to accomplish the desired outcomes.
Chapter 9, Establishing Community-Based Organ-
izations, by West, Kraeger, and Dahlstrom
addresses the all-important question, “How should
we be organized?” They outline different types of
community-based organizations and their struc-
tures, including social enterprise, and show
examples in practice. Chapter 10, Leadership
and Community Development by Price and
Pittman, discusses the need for communities to
effectively integrate skill development into their
activities. The premise is that great leadership
leads to the most desirable community devel-
opment outcomes. Vincent’s second contribution,
Chapter 11, Community Development Assess-
ments, provides a broad perspective on the total
community assessment process. It discuses
comprehensive assessments and the areas that
should be considered, including a community’s
physical, social, and human infrastructure and
capital. Chapter 12, Community Asset Mapping
and Surveys by Green provides information on
techniques such as asset inventories, identifying
potential partners and collaborators, various
survey instruments, and data collection methods.
The final chapter in this section, Chapter 13
Understanding Community Economies by
Galloway, discusses how to assess the underlying
strengths and weaknesses of the local economy. It
provides an overview of economic impact
analysis and how it can be used to allocate scarce
community financial resources.
Part III: Programming Techniques and Strategies
gives several specific application areas for
community development and how these areas can
be approached. Chapter 14, Human Capital and
Workforce Development, addresses the vital
question of how to develop a quality workforce
and educational components in the community. It
provides examples of initiatives that communities
have used to address this need. Pittman’s Chapter
15, Marketing the Community, provides an
overview of how to attract new businesses into a
community to strengthen the local economy.
Creating recognition for the community, identi-
fying the appropriate target audience and the
most effective marketing message are discussed.
In Chapter 16, Retaining and Expanding Existing
Community Businesses, Pittman and Roberts
explain the importance of focusing on businesses
already present in communities. An existing
business program can help communities in many
direct and indirect ways and is often more effective
in job creation than other approaches. Gruidl and
Markley present Entrepreneurship as a Community
Development Strategy in Chapter 17 as a vital
component driving economic growth and job
creation. The fundamentals for implementing a
strategy of supporting entrepreneurs and creating
a nurturing environment are outlined. Phillips’
Chapter 18, Arts, Culture and Community Devel-
opment, explores ways communities can build on
cultural assets to develop approaches around
historic preservation, arts and culture. A variety of
models and approaches are reviewed. Chapter
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

xxii EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION
19, Housing and Community Development by
Phillips, provides a basic understanding of how
housing typology, density, and affordability affect
housing and community development. It also
includes innovative approaches to housing, such
as ecovillages and cohousing. Reardon’s Chapter
20, Neighborhood Planning for Community
Development and Revitalization, discusses the
model of participatory neighborhood planning.
This model seeks to improve quality of life with
comprehensive revitalization strategies grounded
in an asset-based approach. Our final contribution
to this part, Chapter 21, Measuring Progress, by
Phillips and Pittman, begins with the premise that
progress evaluation is not only challenging but
vital and organizations must be able to asses and
demonstrate the value and outcome of their activ-
ities. Community indicators are presented, as well
as a discussion of quality of life and happiness
considerations for communities.
Part IV: Issues Impacting Community Devel-
opment focuses on a few of the many and diverse
issues relevant to community development theory
and practice. Chapter 22, Perspectives on Current
Issues by Lachapelle, provides a summary of
responses from community development scholars
and practitioners from across the globe. They
discuss challenges and opportunities, and provide
a wealth of insight into both theory and practice.
Chapter 23 by Phillips, Community-Based Energy,
addresses issues emerging in alternative energy
sources from a community economic development
perspective. Chapter 24, Community and Economic
Development Finance by Hamer and Farr, gives an
overview and explanation of the different types of
community development financing from public and
private sources. It includes definitions of key terms
as well as ideas on structuring funding partner-
ships. The final chapter offers some concluding
observations on issues and challenges facing our
communities, as well as discussing the important
role of community development in helping shape
the future of our society.
As stated at the outset, community development
is indeed a complex and interdisciplinary field, as
evidenced by the breadth and scope of the
chapters presented. We encourage students of
community development to embrace the “ethos” of
the community development discipline as one that
focuses on creating better places to live and work
and increasing the quality of life for all.
Rhonda Phillips
Purdue University, USA
Robert H. Pittman
Janus Institute, USA
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

PART I
Foundations
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

1 A Framework for Community
and Economic Development
Overview
Community development has evolved into a recognized discipline of interest to both practitioners
and academicians. Community development is defined in many different ways; some think of
community development as an outcome—physical, social, and economic improvement in a
community—while others think of community development as a process—the ability of commu-
nities to act collectively and enhancing the ability to do so. This chapter defines community
development as both a process and an outcome and explains the relationship between the two.
A related area, economic development, is also defined in different ways. This chapter offers a
holistic definition that includes not only economic dimensions but vital other dimensions impacting
community quality of life and well-being. The model of the community and economic development
chain shows the links, causal relationships, and feedback loops between community and
economic development.
Introduction
Community development has many different defi-
nitions. Unlike mathematics or physics where
terms are scientifically derived and rigorously
defined, community development has evolved
with many different connotations. Community
development has probably been practiced for as
long as there have been communities. Many
scholars trace the origin of community devel-
opment as a discipline and known profession to
post-World War II reconstruction efforts to improve
less-developed countries (Wise 1998). In the US,
some cite the “war on poverty” of the 1960s with
its emphasis on solving neighborhood housing
and social problems as a significant influence on
contemporary community development (Green
and Haines 2011). A major contribution of
community development has been the recognition
that a city or neighborhood is not just a collection
of buildings but a “community” of people facing
common problems with untapped capacities for
self-improvement. Today community is defined in
many different ways: in geographic terms, such
as a neighborhood or town (place-based or
communities of place definitions); or in social
terms, such as a group of people sharing common
chat rooms on the internet, a national profes-
sional association, or a labor union (communities
of interest definitions).
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

4
BOX 1.1 EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community development as a profession has deep roots, tracing its origins to social movements (it is, after
all, about collective action) of earlier times throughout the globe. Activism such as the Sanitary Reform
movement in the 1840s and housing reforms a bit later helped push forward positive changes at community
levels. For example, in the 1880s, Jane Addams was among the first to respond to deplorable housing
conditions in tenements by establishing Hull House in Chicago, a community center for poor immigrant
workers. Beyond North America, community development may be called “civil society,” or “community
regeneration,” and activities are conducted by both government and nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs). There may or may not be regulation of organizations, depending on different countries’ policy
frameworks (for a review of community development, see Hautekeur 2005). The Progressive movement of the
1890s through the first few decades of the twentieth century was all about community development (von
Hoffman 2012), although the term itself did not arise until mid-century.
During the 1950s and 1960s, social change and collective action again garnered much attention due to
the need to rectify dismal conditions within poverty-stricken rural and areas of urban decline. The civil rights
and anti-poverty movements led to the recognition of community development as a practice and emerging
profession, taking form as a means to elicit change in social, economic, political, and environmental aspects
of communities. During the 1960s, literally thousands of community development corporations (CDCs) were
formed, including many focusing on housing needs as prompted by U.S. Federal legislation providing
funding for nonprofit community organizations. This reclaiming of citizen-based governing was also prompted
in response to urban renewal approaches by government beginning with the U.S. Housing Act of 1949. The
richness of the CDC experience is chronicled in the Community Development Corporation Oral History
Project by the Pratt Center for Community Development. This includes one of the first CDCs in the US, the
Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation in New York City.
Today, there are about 4,000 CDCs in the US, with most focusing on housing development as well as other
related activities for improving community quality of life. However, many also include a full range of
community development activities, with about 25% providing a comprehensive array of housing development,
home ownership programs, commercial and business development, community facilities, open space/
environmental, workforce, and youth programs, and planning and organizing activities (Walker 2002).
Throughout the world, many organizations practice community development, including the public sector as
well as the private, for-profit and other nonprofit groups. As the variety of topics in this book attests, community
development continues to be built on social activism and housing to encompass a broad spectrum of
processes and activities dealing with multiple dimensions of community including physical, environmental,
social, and economic factors.
Sources
G. Hautekeur (2005) Community Development in Europe. Community Development Journal 40(4): 385–398.
A. von Hoffman (2012) The Past, Present, and Future of Community Development in the United States. In Andrews,
N.O. & Erickson, D.J. (eds), Investing in What Works for America’s Communities. San Francisco: Federal Reserve
Bank.
C. Walker (2002) Community Development Corporations and Their Changing Support Systems. Washington, D.C.:
Urban Institute.
For more details on the CDC Oral History Project, see www.prattcenter.net/cdcoralhistory.php
To learn more details on the history of community development in the US, see Alexander von Hoffman’s, The Past,
Present, and Future of Community Development in the United States, published by the Joint Center for Housing
Studies, Harvard University, 2012. www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/jchs.harvard.edu/files/w12-6_von_hoffman.pdf
Civil and social activism throughout the world has served as a basis for community development approaches,
including those built upon works by Paulo Freire, a noted activist educator inspiring many with his classic 1970
Pedagogy of the Oppressed. See Margaret Ledwith’s 2005 Community Development: A Critical Approach for
discussion of Freire’s ideas in community development theory and practice.
For a history of community development in the UK, see The Community Development Reader, History, Theory, and
Issues, by Gary Craig, Marjorie Mayo, Keith Popple, Mae Shaw, and Marilyn Taylor (2011).
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

A FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 5
The rich and diverse history of community devel-
opment has roots in many areas, evolving into a
recognized discipline drawing from a wide variety
of academic fields including urban and regional
planning, sociology, economics, political science,
geography, and many others. Today there is a
variety of academic and professional journals
focusing on community development. The interest
of researchers and practitioners from many different
disciplines has contributed greatly to the growth
and development of the field. However, community
development’s growth and interdisciplinary nature
have led to the current situation where it is defined
and approached in a great variety of ways. Given
community development’s origins in social
advocacy and calls to social action, the emphasis
on equity is a common thread. The need for social
reform and social justice has always been present,
and continue to be critical across communities
globally. See Box 1.2 for more information about
some of the history of social equity.
This chapter takes a broad approach to
community development. While it is impossible in
one chapter (or book) to completely cover such a
large field, many different aspects of community
development are included. In particular, we have
observed that the strong interrelationship between
community and economic development is often
overlooked in research and practice. This inter-
relationship is one focus of this chapter and book.
Economic development focuses predominately on
the monetary aspects of the processes and
outcomes—generating wealth in a community. It
is, by default, often centered on issues of effi-
ciency. This is counter to community development’s
emphasis on equity, yet balance can be sought
between these two elements. It is our intent to
explore this balance, bringing together both
community and economic development to explore
ways to foster better outcomes or community well-
being and improved quality of life for our towns,
cities, regions, and beyond.
BOX 1.2 THE UNDERREPRESENTED
More than a century prior to the Occupy Wall Street movement, Upton Sinclair, in The Jungle (1906),
described the horrible conditions of the meatpacking factories and the poverty and hopelessness prevalent
in the Back of the Yards neighborhood in Chicago. Inspired by the work of Sinclair, the other Muckrakers,
and the labor organizer John Lewis, Saul Alinsky became a community organizer and took it to the streets,
convinced that the interests of workers and the poor were not being represented and protected by traditional
political processes and institutions. Alinsky “walked the talk,” served many jail terms for nonviolent
demonstrations and, shortly before his death, published his seminal work, Rules for Radicals in 1971. The
book is a primer for community organizing and extols the importance and justification of using non-
conventional means to close the gap between the “haves” and “have-nots.”
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the early civil rights movement adopted Alinsky’s and other nonviolent protesters’
methods. In his eloquent “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” King wrote:
You may well ask: “Why direct action? Why sit ins, marches and so forth? Isn’t negotiation a better
path?” You are quite right in calling for negotiation. Indeed, this is the very purpose of direct action.
Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which
has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue.
The Mavis Staples video (www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZWdDI_fkns) dramatically captures the bravery of
the civil rights protesters.
Why has there been a long tradition of community activism in the United States? The reason is that
traditional institutions and political processes have not always given sufficient voice and a “seat at the table,”
for the nation’s poor and minorities. As the urban planning theorist and activist for social justice and equity
Paul Davidoff has written:
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

6
the “great issues” in economic organization, those resolving around the central issue of the nature of
distributive justice, have yet to be settled. The world is still in turmoil over the way in which the resources
of the nations are to be distributed.
(1965: 50)
These issues are as relevant today as when first written by Davidoff 50 years ago. Although economic growth
and development can bring many benefits, those benefits are not evenly distributed and the costs are often
paid by the poorest members of our society. One noteworthy attempt at the local level to address these issues
is the Cleveland experiment from late 1969–1979 in the practice of equity planning. Norman Krumholz and
his staff of professional planners instituted progressive programs and policies that resulted in property law
changes, improvements in public service delivery, protection of transit services for the most transit-dependent,
and the rescue of city parklands and beaches to serve the poor. The Cleveland experience is well worth
reviewing for a politically effective and savvy approach to progressive economic development and growth.
Jay M. Stein, Ph.D., FAICP
Arizona State University, USA
Sources
Saul Alinsky (1971) Rules for Radicals. New York: Random House.
Paul Davidoff (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 31(4):
331–338.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1963) Letter from a Birmingham Jail. Accessed December 21, 2013 at: www.africa.
upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html
Norman Krumholz and John Forester (1990) Making Equity Planning Work. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Upton Sinclair (1906) The Jungle. Chicago: Doubleday, Jabber and Company.
The terms community development and economic
development are widely used by academicians,
professionals, and citizens from all walks of life
and have almost as many definitions as users.
Economic development is perhaps more familiar
to laypersons. If random individuals on the street
were asked what economic development is, some
might define it in physical terms such as new
homes, office buildings, retail shops, and “growth”
in general. Others might define it as new busi-
nesses and jobs coming into the community. A few
thoughtful individuals might even define it in soci-
oeconomic terms such as an increase in per capita
income, enhanced quality of life, or issues around
equity such as reduction in poverty.
Ask the same individuals what community devel-
opment is, and they would probably think a while
before answering. Some might say it is physical
growth—new homes and commercial buildings—
just like economic development. Others might say it
is community improvement such as new infra-
structure, roads, schools, or improving quality of
life in areas such as reducing poverty or improving
housing conditions. Most respondents would
probably define community and economic devel-
opment in terms of an outcome—physical growth,
new infrastructure, better housing, or jobs. Probably
no one would define them in terms of a process and
many would not understand how they are inter-
related. This is unfortunate because some of these
passers-by are probably involved in community
and economic development efforts serving as
volunteers or board members for community-ori-
ented nonprofit organizations, economic devel-
opment agencies, or charitable organizations.
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to
provide meaningful descriptions of community
development and economic development as both
processes and outcomes, explore what they entail,
and understand them as distinct but closely related
disciplines. First the focus will be on community
development, followed by a discussion of
economic development and, finally, an exami-
nation of the relationship between the two.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Community Development
The first step in defining community development
is to define “community.” As mentioned previously,
community can refer to a location (communities of
place) or a collection of individuals with a common
interest or tie whether in close proximity or widely
separated (communities of interest). A review of
the literature conducted by Mattessich and Monsey
(2004) found many definitions of community
such as:
People who live within a geographically
defined area and who have social and
psychological ties with each other and with
the place where they live.
(Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 56)
A grouping of people who live close to one
another and are united by common interests
and mutual aid.
(National Research Council 1975, cited in
Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 56)
A combination of social units and systems
which perform the major social functions …
the organization of social activities.
(Warren 1963, cited in Mattessich
and Monsey 2004: 57)
These definitions refer first to people and the ties
that bind them and second to geographic loca-
tions. They remind us that without people and the
connections among them, a community is just a
collection of buildings and streets.
Given these definitions, the term community devel-
opment takes on the context of developing stronger
“communities” of people and the social and psycho-
logical ties that they share. Indeed this is how
community development is defined in much of the
literature. Again Mattessich and Monsey found
many such definitions in their literature review:
Community development is an educational
process designed to help adults in a
community solve their problems by group
decision making and group action.
(Long 1975, cited in Mattessich
Community development is the “active
voluntary involvement in a process to improve
some identifiable aspect of community life;
normally such action leads to the strength-
ening of the community’s pattern of human
and institutional relationships.”
(Ploch 1976, cited in Mattessich
These definitions imply that community devel-
opment is the process of teaching people how to
work together to solve common problems.
Other authors define community development
more in terms of an action, result, or outcome:
Local decision making and the development
of programs designed to make the community
a better place to live and work.
(Huie 1976, cited in Mattessich
A group of people in a locality initiating a
social action process to change their
economic, social, cultural and/or environ-
mental situation.
(Christenson and Robinson 1989, cited in
A series of community improvements
which take place over time as a result of
the common efforts of various groups of
people.
(Dunbar 1972, cited in Mattessich
All of these definitions are valid in that community
development should be considered both a process
and an outcome. However, as mentioned
previously, the person on the street would probably
think of community development in terms of a
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

8
physical result (improved infrastructure, better
health care, etc.). Therefore, a definition of com-
munity development in simple but broad terms is:
A process: developing the ability to act collec-
tively, and
An outcome: (1) taking collective action and
(2) the result of that action for improvement in
a community in any or all realms: physical,
environmental, cultural, social, political,
economic, etc.
Having arrived at a comprehensive definition of
community development, the focus can now be on
what facilitates or leads to community development.
The community development literature generally
refers to this as social capital or social capacity:
The abilities of residents to organize and
mobilize their resources for the accomplishment
of consensual defined goals.
(Christenson and Robinson 1989, cited in
The resources embedded in social relation-
ships among persons and organizations that
facilitate cooperation and collaboration in
communities.
(Committee for Economic
Development 1995, cited in Mattessich
Simply put, social capital or capacity is the extent to
which members of a community can work together
effectively to develop and sustain strong relation-
ships; solve problems and make group decisions;
and collaborate effectively to plan, set goals, and
get things done. There is a broad literature on social
capital, with some scholars making the distinction
between bonding capital and bridging capital
(Agnitsch et al. 2006). Bonding capital refers to ties
within homogeneous groups (e.g. races, ethnicities,
social action committees, or people of similar socio-
economic status) while bridging capital refers to ties
among different groups.
There are four other forms of “community
capital” often mentioned in the community devel-
opment literature (Green and Haines 2002: viii):
• Human capital: labor supply, skills, cap-
abilities and experience, etc.;
• Physical capital: buildings, streets, infra-
structure, etc.;
• Financial capital: community financial
institutions, microloan funds, community devel-
opment banks, etc.;
• Environmental capital: natural resources,
weather, recreational opportunities, etc.
All five types of community capital are important.
However, it is difficult to imagine a community
making much progress without some degree of
social capital or capacity. The more social capital
a community has, the more likely it can adapt to
and work around deficiencies in the other types of
community capital. When conducting community
assessments (see Chapter 11), it is useful to think
in terms of these five types of community capital.
So far, working definitions of community,
community development, and social capital have
been provided. To complete the community devel-
opment equation, it is necessary to identify how
to create or increase social capital or capacity.
This process is generally referred to as social
capital building or capacity building. Here is one
definition from the literature:
An on-going comprehensive effort that
strengthens the norms, and supports the
problem solving resources of the community.
(Committee for Economic Development 1995,
cited in Mattessich and Monsey 2004: 60)
Notice that this sounds exactly like the definitions of
the process of community development given
above. We have come full circle. The process of
community development is social capital/capacity
building which leads to social capital which in turn
leads to the outcome of community development.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

Figure 1.1 depicts the community development
chain. The solid lines show the primary flow of
causality. However, there is a feedback loop shown
by the dotted lines. Progress in the outcome of
community development (taking positive action
resulting in physical and social improvements in the
community) contributes to capacity building (the
process of community development) and social
capital. For example, better infrastructure (e.g.
public transportation, internet access, etc.) facili-
tates public interaction, communications, and group
meetings. Individuals who are materially, socially,
and psychologically better off are likely to have
more time to spend on community issues because
they have to devote less time to meeting basic
human and family needs. Success begets success in
community development. When local citizens see
positive results (outcome), they generally get more
enthused and plow more energy into the process
because they see the payoff. Research has shown
there are certain characteristics of communities that
influence their ability to do capacity building and
create social capital (Mattessich and Monsey
2004). Chapter 4 of this book discusses some of
these community characteristics.
Now that the components of community devel-
opment and their relationships have been identified,
we can return to the random individuals on the street
and ask them what the difference is between growth
and development. From the definitions above, it
would seem that development is a more encom-
passing term than growth. Green and Haines (2002:
5) define growth as:
Increased quantities of specific phenomena
such as jobs, population and income, whereas
development involves structural change in a
community including: 1) how resources are
used; and 2) the functioning of institutions.
By these definitions, a community can have
growth without development and vice versa. The
important point to note, however, is that devel-
opment not only facilitates growth but also influ-
ences the kind and amount of growth a community
experiences. Successful communities control their
own destiny through the successful practice of
community development. Community devel-
opment empowers communities to change.
Economic Development
As with community development, economic devel-
opment has its origins in efforts to improve less
developed countries and the American war on
poverty (Malizia and Feser 1999). Immediately
after World War II and certainly before, parts of
the US were not unlike developing countries with
rampant poverty and unemployment due to the
decline of agricultural jobs. Many southern states
developed programs to recruit industries from the
northern US with cheap labor and government
incentives (e.g. tax breaks) as bait. In the 1960s,
the emphasis on economic development was at
the federal level with Great Society programs
aimed at eliminating pockets of poverty such as
Capacity building
community development
process
Developing the ability to act
Social capital
The ability to act
Community
development
outcome
Taking action
Community
improvement
Q Figure 1.1 Community Development Chain
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

10
BOX 1.3 COMMUNITY WELL-BEING: THE NEXT GENERATION FOR COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT?
Aristotle’s term eudaemonia consists of the words “eu” and “daimon,” meaning “good” and “spirit.” Modern
scholars have seized on this concept in the context of communities and use it to explain renewed interest in
promoting improvements in well-being (Lee and Kim 2014). Common frameworks of concepts and measures
can assist communities in prioritizing goals and values (Phillips 2014); community well-being can then be
thought of as encompassing “the broad range of economic, social, environmental, cultural and governance
goals and priorities identified as of greatest importance by a particular community, population group or
society” (Cox et al. 2010: 72) or, “the concept of community well-being is focused on understanding the
contribution of a community in maintaining itself and fulfilling the various needs of local residents” (Haworth
and Hart 2007: 95). It is further described as a way to bring together social relationship and social
organization with the idea that community “well-being is something that we do together, not something that
we each possess” (Haworth and Hart 2007: 128). The underlying idea is that this broader concept is an
umbrella concept, encompassing ideas of sustainability, happiness, quality of life, and other social domains.
Community and economic development, along with urban and regional planning are seen as approaches to
helping foster improved community well-being in this context. See for example Chicago’s efforts toward
“Quality of Life Planning,” in conjunction with the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC).
Sources
Cox, D., Frere, M., West, S., and Wiseman, J. (2010) Developing and Using Local Community Wellbeing Indicators:
Learning from the Experiences of Community Indicators Victoria. Australian Journal of Social Issues 45(1): 71–89.
Haworth, J. and Hart, G. (2007) Well-Being, Individual, Community and Social Perspectives. Hampshire, UK:
Palgrave.
Lee, S.J. and Kim, Y. (2014). Community Wellbeing: Concepts and Measurements. In S.J. Lee, Y. Kim, and R. Phillips
(eds.), Community Wellbeing: Conceptions and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer, forthcoming.
LISC New Communities Program, Chicago. Quality of Life Planning Handbook, www.newcommunities.org/tools/
qofl.asp
Phillips, R. (2014) Building Community Well-Being across Sectors: “For Benefit” Community Business. In S.J. Lee,
Y. Kim and R. Phillips, Community Wellbeing: Conceptions and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer.
the southern Appalachian Mountains region. In
the 1970s and 1980s, the emphasis shifted to
states and localities. If they did not already have
them, many communities created economic devel-
opment organizations with public as well as
private funding. In many communities, economic
development was part of city or country
government, while in other communities it was
under the auspices of the private nonprofit sector
such as local chambers of commerce.
Initially, most economic development agencies
focused on industrial recruitment or on enticing new
companies to locate in their communities. State and
local departments of economic development
aggressively courted industry and increased the
amount and variety of incentives. Soon it became
apparent that tens of thousands of economic devel-
opment organizations were chasing a limited
number of corporate relocations/expansions and
playing a highly competitive game of incentives
and marketing efforts. This highly competitive situ-
ation became known as a “zero sum game” after
Lester Thurow’s description of macroeconomics in
the now classic The Zero-Sum Society Distribution
and the Possibilities for Economic Change (1980).
In other words, there are no true winners, given a
tendency toward a “beggar thy neighbor approach”
to enticing industry. The benefit to communities or
regions of giving expansive tax incentives to keep
or lure industry into the area is not often clear.
Timothy Bartik addressed this question in Who
Benefits from State and Local Economic Devel-
opment Policies? in 1991; policy makers, scholars,
and practitioner alike are still debating.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

As communities realized that there were other
ways to create jobs, they began to focus on
internal opportunities such as small business devel-
opment and ensuring that businesses already
located in the community stayed and expanded
there. Many communities also realized that by
improving education, aesthetics and amenities to
make life better, environmental conditions,
government services, local labor skills and supply,
and the business climate in general, they could
make themselves more attractive to both internal
and external investments. These wider approaches
help encourage better quality-of-life conditions.
Like community development, economic devel-
opment has evolved into a broad and multi-
disciplinary field. In earlier decades, economic
development was synonymous with growth, not
necessarily a positive correlation. A more holistic
definition of economic development includes an
emphasis on increasing the quality of life (the
general well-being of individuals and collectively
as community) through opportunities and
improvement. From this perspective, economic
development is undertaken for the purposes of
increasing standards of living through attaining
greater per capita income, quality and quantity of
employment opportunities, and enhanced quality
of life for the persons represented within the devel-
opment district.
BOX 1.4 GROWTH VS. DEVELOPMENT
Growth by itself could be either an improvement or detriment. For instance, a facility that paid very low
wages might open in an area. As a result, the population and overall size of the economy might increase,
but per capita incomes might fall, and the quality of life might suffer (Blair 1995: 14). Of course many
communities would be happy to get any new facility regardless of the wage rate. A minimum wage job may
be better than no job in some situations, and there is a portion of the labor force in most communities that is
a good match for minimum wage jobs (e.g. teenagers and adult low-skilled workers).
Since growth does not always equate with a better standard of living, Blair suggests a higher-order
definition of economic development: Economic development implies that the welfare of residents is improving.
Increases in per capita income (adjusted for inflation) is one important indicator of welfare improvements
(1995: 14).
There are many other indicators of welfare and quality of life for community residents such as poverty
rates, health statistics, and income distribution, but per capita income or income per household is a
common measurement of wealth. Whether wealth equates to a good quality of life depends on the
individual, although there are basic levels needed to have a decent standard of living. Moreover, per
capita income is not necessarily a measure of purchasing power. The cost of living varies from place to
place, and a dollar goes farther where prices are low. Like community development, these descriptions
portray economic development as both a process and an outcome—the process of mobilizing resources to
create the outcome of more jobs, higher incomes, and an increased standard of living, however it is
measured. From this discussion it should be apparent that development has a very different connotation
than growth. Development implies structural change and improvements within community systems
encompassing both economic change and the functioning of institutions and organizations (Boothroyd and
Davis 1993; Green and Haines 2011). Development is a deliberate action taken to elicit desired structural
changes. Growth, on the other hand, focuses on the quantitative aspects of more jobs, facilities construction,
and so on—within the context that more is better. One should carefully distinguish then between indicators
that measure growth versus development. By these definitions, a community can have growth without
development and vice versa. The important point to note, however, is that development not only facilitates
growth but also influences the kind and amount of growth a community experiences. Development guides
and directs growth outcomes.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

12
Economic development centers on creating
wealth and other economic outcomes. One way
to view the relationship between these two areas
is that community development can be thought of
as producing assets and capacities while
economic development mobilizes these assets for
economic benefits. As noted, traditional or main-
stream economic development has focused on
economic outcomes, sometimes to the detriment of
ecological or social dimensions of community.
Now that we have defined economic deve-
lopment, we can discuss what it entails in practice.
Most economic developers concentrate on creating
new jobs. This is generally the key to wealth
creation and higher living standards. Many
economic developers refer to the “three-legged
stool” of job creation: recruiting new
businesses, retaining and expanding businesses
already in the community, and facilitating new
business start-ups. As discussed previously,
economic developers originally concentrated on
recruiting new businesses. Stiff competition for a
limited number of new or expanded facilities in a
given year led some communities to realize that
another way to create jobs is to work with
companies already in the area to maximize the
likelihood that if they need to expand existing oper-
ations or start new ones, they would do so in the
community and not elsewhere. Even if an expansion
is not involved, some businesses may relocate their
operations to other areas for “pull” or “push”
reasons (Pittman 2007). They may relocate to be
closer to their customers, closer to natural resources,
or for any number of strategic business reasons
(pull). Businesses may also relocate because of
problems with their current location such as an
inadequate labor force, high taxes, or simply lack
of community support (push). Although communities
cannot influence most pull factors, they can act to
mitigate many push factors. If the problem is labor,
they can establish labor-training programs. If the
problem is high taxes, they can grant tax abate-
ments in return for creating new jobs. Business
retention and expansion has become a recognized
sub-field of economic development, and there are
many guides on the subject such as those by
Entergy and other utility companies, for example.
Chapter 16 of this book addresses business
retention and expansion in more detail.
There is also much communities can do to facil-
itate the start up of new local businesses. Some
communities create business incubators where
fledgling companies share support services, benefit
from reduced rent, or even get free consulting assis-
tance. Financial assistance, such as revolving loan
funds at reduced interest rates, is also a common
tool used to encourage small business start-ups.
Making a community “entrepreneurial friendly” is
the subject of Chapter 17 of this book.
While the majority of new jobs in most regions
are created by business retention and expansion
and new business start-ups (Roberts 2006), many
communities continue to define economic devel-
opment in terms of recruiting new facilities. Some
communities are stuck in the old paradigm of
“smokestack chasing”—relying solely on recruiting
a new factory when manufacturing employment is
declining nationally and many companies are
moving offshore. These communities may have
historically relied on traditional manufacturing
companies for the bulk of their employment, and
when these operations shut down, the only thing
they knew to do was to pursue more of the same.
Elected officials, civic board members, and citizens
in these communities need to be educated and
enlightened to the fact that the paradigm has long
ago shifted. They should be recruiting other types of
businesses such as call centers or service industries
while practicing business retention and expansion
and creating new business start-up programs.
Growing businesses and enterprise locally will
result in better outcomes for communities.
While economic development today is often
defined by the “three-legged stool,” there is much
more to the profession. As shown in a survey by a
large regional professional association (SEDC
2006), economic developers get involved in work-
force development, permitting assistance, and
many other issues, some of which are better
defined as community development.
Copyright
©
2014.
Routledge.
All
rights
reserved.
May
not
be
reproduced
in
any
form
without
permission
from
the
publisher,
except
fair
uses
permitted
under
U.S.
or
applicable
copyright
law.
Account: s7246381

chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf

chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf

Similar to chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

chapter 1 by Pillips and Pittman.pdf