This is for a research project we were asked to conduct for one of my English classes; it is my personal favorite as it gave me the very unique opportunity to explore the colonial history of Mexico and its effects on Mexican cuisine.

1. Mole sauce as an illustration of regional differences in Mexico
Nancy Sanchez
Professor Philbert
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Due December 12, 2019

2. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 1
Abstract
Deep rooted in Spanish and indigenous roots, mole sauce is a dish that has come to
represent the social class hierarchy, patriarchy, and nationalist ideologies within the Mexican
culture. Through the examination of mole, this paper explores the colonial history of Mexico in
the 16th to 17th century, pinning the Spanish colonization of Mexico at the very forefront of self-
consciousness in overall Mexican food-ways and traditions at the time. In addition, this paper
examines Pilcher’s (1998, 2018) and Torres and Cardena’s (2005) research to look at how the
folklore surrounding mole and its origins points to the Spanish in an attempt to over score
indigenous people, and we learn the pivotal role that Mexican women had in claiming back the
national identity of Mexico through this very complex, saturated sauce. Most importantly, we
examine Oaxaca, most famously known for its remaining indigenous population, and Puebla, the
state heaviest influenced by Spain to help us identify the regional differences that are shown
throughout different variations of mole.

3. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 2
Mole Sauce as an Illustration of Regional Differences in Mexico
Growing up as a Mexican-American, I never realized how sacred food was to cultural
identity until I went to Mexico for the first time in 2018. The streets were always swarmed with
carts—big and small—of locals selling sweet nanche, dobladitas, tacos — each dish and snack
an intricate extension of the Mexican culture. Mole, however, was always the most striking.
Rows of mole would line the stands, signs categorizing what seemed to be an infinite amount of
mole types; each one different in color, texture, and just as complex as the other. A thick, brown
sauce mixed with spices and nuts, and with over 10-30 ingredients more depending on the
family, the ingredients, and the region, mole has come to embody the cultural complexity of
Mexico. In this paper, we look at the origin of mole in Mexico (including urban legends), the
significance of mole in Mexican culture, and the array of moles that exist throughout, with a
particular emphasis on mole manchamantel, deriving from Oaxaca, Mexico and mole poblano,
deriving from Puebla, Mexico. Most importantly, we examine both Oaxaca and Puebla to come
to a just, reasonable explanation as to how and why the ingredients and cooking styles differ
from region to region.
The history/origin of Mole: Spanish influence. Mole, deemed Mexico’s national dish, isn’t a
dish that one can whip up overnight. Calling primarily for special celebrations and gatherings, it
is a collaborative, often multi-person process with a profound colonial history (Twilley & Gaber,
2019). Legend has it that it was first cooked up in a convent; an accidental discovery made by
nuns (Alisau, 1998; Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Twilley & Gaber, 2019). However, historians
trace the origins of mole as far back as five centuries ago, and have found that it is deep rooted in
Spain and the Middle East. (Conroy, 2018; Twilley & Gaber, 2019) While the ingredients of
tomato, chocolate, and turkey suggest indigenous roots (Graber, K. H., 2003), the substantial

4. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 3
amount of ingredients required to make mole is an element exclusive to the Spanish culture,
particularly derived from the Baroque era. (Torres & Cárdenas, 2005)
As a result of the Spanish colonization, much of Mexico’s extravagant architecture and
complex cuisine is heavily influenced by Baroque, a style of art that flourished throughout
Europe from the late 16th to the early 18th century, characterized by its extensive ornamentation.
(Torres & Cárdenas, 2005) In terms of cuisine, Europeans strongly believed in the saying “you
are what you eat” and would not, by any means necessary, accept any other culture — much less
dishes that were different from their own. (Pilcher, 1998, 2018; Twilley & Gaber, 2019) They
not only brought their own recipes along with them on the boat, but their cooking utensils too -
giving them the means necessary to colonize a people successfully. In fact, within the
hierarchical society of New Spain, food, like clothing and language, “served as a status marker”
(Pilcher, 1998). During the colonial times, which lasted from the 16th to the 19th century, a new
class system emerged. (Maldonado, R. R. G., 2007) Spaniards born in Spain were considered the
purebred, having full colonial reign. The criollos, on the other hand, were Spaniards born in
Mexico. Then the mestizos, those with mixed Spanish and indigenous blood, followed down the
chain. At the very bottom were the indigenous people and the African slaves, who were
considered inferior to the colonizers.
The most significant social distinction between the criollos and the Indian and mestizos
was the corn tortilla. While criollo cuisine consisted of wheat bread, the Indian and mestizo ate
corn tortillas, which Spanish colonizers considered to be unfit for human consumption. (Torres
& Cárdenas, 2005) Though cuisine’s noteworthy taste was acquired from Native American chili
peppers, which went on to transform into Mexican mole, medical literature banished spicy foods
as a positive health hazard in the 1700s in an attempt to replace the sugars and spices prominent

5. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 4
throughout medieval cuisine. Following the “medical” ban, self-consciousness in Mexican
cuisine arose, and their desire to forge a new cuisine exclusive to the Mexican culture was born
(Laudan, 2004; Pilcher, 1998).
The history/origins of mole: Indigenous roots. Large parts of Spain, however, were in fact
ruled by moors long before, or Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb who went on to influence a
variety of Spanish dishes. (Twilley & Gaber, 2019) The Islamic rule in Spain lasted for 781
years, from 711 to 1492. During this time, the parts conquered by the Moors was referred to as
Al Andalus. The cookbooks of medieval Al Andalus not only portrays a lot of sauces, but the
general structure of making a sauce, like grinding nuts and spices together with acidic elements
— making it particularly unique to medieval Islamic cuisines. (Twilley & Gaber, 2019) While
legend does suggest that mole is Spanish-derived, the saturated and intricate nature of the dish
indicates a more profound history; representing a combination of indigenous and Spanish
ingredients and techniques, all collectively and firmly grounded in medieval origins. (Twilley &
Gaber, 2019)
Significance of chilies. Moreover, the distinction provided by chilies in the 1700s created the
central basis in the construction of a national cuisine, making it perhaps the most sacred and
crucial to Mexican cuisine. (Pilcher, 1998, Maldonado, R. R. G., 2007) Besides chocolate, chile
is also the staple ingredient in mole. The chiles found in mole are primarily part of the annuum
group, which contain much of the unique flavors that have most greatly influenced cooking in
Mexico today. While any pepper can be dried, the ones used to make mole are better suited to the
drying process. Instead of letting them shed in water, the fleshy yet dried chiles of mole require
soak in water for a brief time so the flavor persists. This is because their skins are an essential
thickener for the final sauce, giving it its flavor. Generally, for the Mexican culture, food without

6. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 5
chiles is not food at all. While medical literature tried to vilify the use of chiles, chile today
serves as the main ingredient in almost every Mexican dish, from tamales, to chilaquiles, to
quesadillas and even including for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. (Maldonado, R. R. G., 2007)
Intro to different types of mole, representative of overall cooking styles. While there is an
entire world of moles out there, what almost all moles commonly consist of are a base of dried
chiles ground with spices (Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Delagrange, 2017). This is to form a paste
or powder. Despite its variations in chiles, the seed quality, additional spices, and the texture and
thickness of the resulting sauce, the mole sauce itself always remains the star of the dish. While
sauces are typically used as condiments to accompany the larger dish, much in the same way that
Americans use ketchup, mole sauce is the dish, making anything served with it secondary.
Mole manchamantel, Oaxaca. Known for its distinct regional cuisine, the southern Mexican
state of Oaxaca is home to seven of the most renowned types of mole: negro, rojo, coloradito,
amarillo, verde, chichilo, and manchamantel. Unlike the other six traditional moles of Oaxaca,
mole manchamantel, which translates to “table-cloth-stainer,” is a dish based on pork loin and
fruits, particularly pineapple. While the word “Oaxaca” originates from the Aztec’s Nahuatl
language, the continued presence of other native people makes the southern state unique; with
more than half of Mexico’s residents being indigenous speakers (Katz, 2009; Levitt, 2016). Due
to the mountain protection surrounding the Central Valleys in Oaxaca, Old Zapotec and Mixtec
traditions, like Good Samaritan Day, remain very much alive (Graber, K. H., 2003; Katz, 2009;
Levitt, 2016). Good Samaritan Day is a holiday exclusive to Oaxaqueños, dedicated to the
custom of gifting free fruit flavored water to visitors and passersby. Like mole manchamantel,
whose distinguishing ingredient is pineapple, fruit water is heavily regarded. According to the
state government, more than 59,000 hectares (145,792 acres) is dedicated to Oaxaca fruit,

7. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 6
“placing Oaxaca among the entities with the greatest agricultural contribution to the national
volume” (Katz, 2009).
Though Oaxaca is known today as “the land of seven moles,” nineteenth-century works
shunned the more indigenous versions such as mole verde. They focused instead on a black
version, which like Puebla’s dish, contained the spices characteristic of medieval stews. (Pilcher,
1998)
Mole poblano. Perhaps the best-known mole, mole poblano is also the most popular in the
Mexican state of Puebla, the state heaviest-influenced by Europe. According to America’s Test
Kitchen, mole poblano is made with an upward of 20 ingredients, leaning less on chocolate and
more on chili peppers, chocolate, plantains, almonds, pumpkin seeds, cinnamon sticks, anise, and
cloves (2018). These eight ingredients are the distinguishing ingredients found in mole poblano
because of their long and profound histories that date back to the ancient, pre-Columbian
empires of Mesoamerica (Graber, K. H., 2003; Ramsay Orr, 2004; Torres & Cárdenas, 2005;
Maldonado, R. R. G., 2007; Katz, 2009). The general ingredients native to Pre-Hispanic times
being corn, beans, and chile. Among the cuisine techniques and practices that followed the
Spanish conquerors was what would become mole poblano, created through the substitution of
Spanish ingredients with those native to America. (Graber, K.H., 2003; Ramsay Orr, 2004;
Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Maldonado, R. R. G, 2007)
While Poblano cuisine is rich in history, agriculture is the pinnacle of Poblano attraction.
(Torres & Cárdenas, 2005) Many of the rich traditions of Puebla involve art, which are
particularly well known for its Talavera ceramics. Talavera ceramics are crafted using the same
techniques introduced by the Spaniards in the 16th century. (Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Alisau,
1998) In fact, Puebla is oftentimes referred to as the City of Street Lights, “due to the numerous

8. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 7
decorative street lamps crafted by the French.” (Maldonado, R. R. G., 2007) The city’s intricate
iron balconies and fine crystal chandeliers adorning historic buildings can also be attributed to
French origins.
Overall, Puebla is a state rich in Spanish colonial influences. According to the U.S
export.gov website, Mexico has been the top export market for U.S. specialty and industrial
fabrics since 2008 (2019), making textile production one of Puebla’s main manufacturing
industry and the largest percentage of the economy. The ruling characteristics of Baroque in the
art, architecture, and cuisine in Puebla illustrates the massive colonial imprint Spain left on the
culture of Mexico.
Mole-making over the years. Mole is traditionally a laborious, ingredient heavy process.
Villages often had a central mill to give mole its signature, rough texture, but because the
accessibility of electricity in villages was scarce, they were instead powered by gas. (Katz, 2009;
Montaño, 2012; Freedman, 2015) This attracted alien flavors and aromas to the moles and masa
being produced, causing an overall disruption to the process of mole-making. (Freedman, 2015)
It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that the mole-making process was revolutionized. With the
more traditional mill, now powered by electricity, “the stone wheel made from volcanic rock
replicates the texture achieved with volcanic mortar” (Freedman, 2015)
Moreover, the use of grinders and blenders make the process much easier, cutting down
the cooking time to four to five hours, according to Blangiardo (Barclay & Castillo-Farfan,
2013). However, the modern day blender has proven to be least efficient than the mill because of
the inconsistency of texture and the inevitable loss of ingredients. (Freedman, 2015)
With its rising popularity among diverse communities, faster and more effective ways of
mole-making have taken over, giving non-Mexican cultures the opportunity to prepare this dish

9. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 8
for themselves. Herdez, the Mexican product line of Hormel Foods, introduced the jarred mole
brand Doña María in 1968, calling for the mere task of thinning it with broth before serving.
(Barclay & Castillo-Farfan, 2013) Targeting those unable to afford the luxury of time, Herdez
later went on to introduce mole "ready to serve" in a carton. While other countries have adapted
mole based on the resources that have become readily available, the use of mills remain
significant in many towns, particularly in Oaxaca, providing a gastronomical hub for primarily
women to meet (Freedman, 2015), symbolizing the existing gender roles in Mexico.
Role of women in Mexico through mole. With different variations of mole, cooking styles, and
technology being adapted around the globe, mole is a constantly evolving dish. In Mexico,
however, each mole not only ranges from region to region, but from family to family, with
recipes being passed down from generations of women. In fact, female cookbook writers were
instrumental in not only reproducing, but in challenging the discourses surrounding the cultural
origin of mole back when the origin of mole was indeed a controversial subject. (Pilcher, 1998;
Aguilar-Rodriguez, 2018) The diversity of recipes that they incorporated reflects the multiple
identities within Mexico, including Spanish, Arab and indigenous influences. Additionally,
published cookbooks at the time reinforced the ideals of patriarchal behavior, with men placing
women under their authority and assigning mothers responsibility for the family’s “moral order”
(Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Montaño, 2012).
Through the examination of mole, patriarchy, social class hierarchy, and nationalist ideals
are present throughout, embodying overall Mexican perspectives and food-ways.

10. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 9
Discussion
How do variations of mole sauce, like Oaxaca’s manchamantel and Puebla’s mole
poblano, illustrate regional differences in Mexico? Well, the virtual monopoly of criollo cuisine
becomes apparent through the different variations of mole, most specifically mole poblano
(Pilcher & Schussheim, 2001). The legend of nuns discovering mole suggests an attempt by the
Spanish to eradicate indigenous traditions (Torres & Cárdenas, 2005; Montaño, 2016; Pilcher,
2018). This becomes clear in the state of Puebla, where Spanish colonizers seemed to have
settled in and designated it as their own. Mole poblano, known as the most popular Mexican
dish, shines through the staple ingredient of chocolate, which gives this mole its dark color.
Oaxaca, on the other hand, represents the minority population – the indigenous. (Levitt, 2016)
This is evident through mole manchamantel’s diverse ingredients, varying in different colors and
ranging in taste with sweet, fruit-based derivatives. (Katz, 2009; Conroy, 2018) Collectively,
however, the fight for its origin made mole a staple dish in Mexico, representing the profound
colonial history and division of social class within Mexico (Aguilar-Rodriguez, 2018). Beyond
social class, gender and nationalism are also large contributory factors to overall food-ways and
identity of Mexican culture. (Laudan, 2004; Montaño, 2012) In attempts to forge their own
identity, mole came to serve as a source of regional and national unity for Mexico.

11. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 10
Conclusion
Today, mole serves as both a celebratory and community dish, uniting people for various
events. It’s offered in weddings, baptisms, birthdays, graduation parties, and other holidays.
After gaining independence from the Spanish conquest, Mexican leaders abolished legal
distinctions within society, but cultural differences were still evident. Cuisine, in particular,
provided Mexicans the means to forge their own national identity (Montaño, 2016; Aguilar-
Rodriguez, 2018; Pilcher, 1998, 2018; Twilley & Gaber, 2019), making mole a representation of
the indigenous and Arab origins with a hint of Baroque for its timely creation, forming an
elegant complexity in taste. (Torres & Cárdenas, 2005)

12. MOLE SAUCE AS AN ILLUSTRATION OF REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN MEX. 11
Resources
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