1. James Fenimore Cooper’s
Novels Forged an American Identity
May Faulk
James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) is considered the first American novelist able to
successfully define the ‘American character’ throughout his novels during the 1820s. Cooper

2. became increasing popular with the elites and he was characterized as ‘the American novelist’
compared to Britain’s Sir Walter Scott; thus to be a true patriot required that you read Cooper’s
books (Taylor, 1996, p.24). After writing The Spy (1821) and The Pioneers (1823), Cooper was
honored by the American Philosophical Society and Columbia College because eastern literary
elites agreed with his views of wilderness which as that wilderness should be valued rather than
distained as was the general consensus of the American population during the 1820s (Taylor,
1996, p.24).
Cooper was able to create the Bread and Cheese Club composed of famous artists and
writers such as Asher Durant, Samuel F. B. Morse and William Cullen Bryant (Taylor, 1996,
p.24). According to Nash (2001) these romantics helped dispel the puritan idea that wilderness
was evil and must be destroyed thus their positive viewpoint was that wilderness had intrinsic
value (p.74). Public views on wilderness were slowly changing as more artists and writers chose
to use wilderness as their main theme whether for nationalist or aesthetic reasons either helped
the public begin to understand the concept of wilderness for reasons other than economic.
Sivil (2010) states Cooper’s book The Pioneers (1827) helped instruct the public on the
importance of conservation practices the opposite of the characters portrayed in his books who
abused the wilderness in order to gain economic rewards (p.248). Nash (2001) concurs with this
view stating Cooper “indirectly dignified wilderness by deprecating those insensitive to its
ethical and aesthetic values” (p.76).
Cooper’s social, political and wilderness views shaped his adventure novels; inevitably,
shaping American culture (Christopherson, 2010, p.266). According to Taylor (1996) Cooper’s
goal was to educate the public about their American history and forge a national identity by

3. uniting Americans who had been divided politically and economically by forty years of political
turmoil which had begun during the revolutionary war (p.22). In order to unite these Americans,
Cooper had to help the American public find a common theme or connection thus the characters
in his novels helped build American self –esteem while promoting the importance of the unique
American wilderness which had no counterpart in Europe.
Old World Views of America
Cooper’s novels incredibly popular during the 1820s were continually sold out; even though,
they were more expensive than their British counterparts (Taylor, 1996, p.23). Most of Cooper’s
early novels had American characters and the pubic was able to relate to these characters because
the characters were based on people from Cooper’s life as a young boy growing up on the
American frontier. Sivil (2010) stated Cooper was continually involved in changing the common
beliefs of his time “social, political, religious and cultural” (p.344). While writing The Prairie
(1827) Cooper was a young idealist, who criticized the un-American ideas held by many
European elites and scientists such as the renowned French naturalist Leclerc (Sivil, 2010,
p.234).
Sivil stated (2010) Leclerc who was an authority on natural history denounced the
American climate stating it caused animals, people and terrain to be inferior to their European
counterparts (p.234). Cooper wanted to dispel this myth responsible for demoralizing his fellow
Americans used his character Dr. Bat in The Prairie (1827) to denounce Leclerc. Using Dr. Bat,
a fictional character, Cooper criticized the renowned naturalist; thereby, decreasing the
importance of Leclerc’s views to the American public; especially as Cooper did not like
Leclerc’s views that all wildernesses contained giant lizards, insects and swamps (Sivil, 2010,
p.253).

4. Ironically, Cooper used the opposite tactic to increase Americans self esteem by making
many of his characters ‘larger than life’ with amazing abilities able to “survive buffalo
stampedes, prairie fires and his American Indians were regarded as resourceful super humans”
(Sivil, 2010, p.344 ). Americans were able to relate to his stories and Cooper’s novels helped to
create a National identity
Historical Roots Forge Nationalism
Cooper’s life was filled with turmoil from the loss of his father’s vast fortune which
resulted in debt collectors and then the death of his young son both of which occurred prior to the
beginning of his novel writing career. Cooper was forced to earn a living as a novelist rather
than become the gentleman farmer his father had been (Pickering, 1982, p.301). James Fenimore
Cooper’s main goal as a young man had been to emulate his father, Judge William Cooper, a
wealthy Anglican farmer regarded by the general population as a man ‘larger than life’ made in
the same mold as folk hero Daniel Boone (Zoellner, 1961, p.55).
However fate, finances and possible inner turmoil chose a different course of action for
James who made his mark on history in a different direction than his father, William Cooper.
Zoellner (1961) stated Judge William Cooper was an ardent Federalist, rugged frontier
gentleman who was physically strong as well as educated. Judge William Cooper had a
determination to create social order, justice and democracy by removing the vast wilderness on
his farm; thereby, expanding civilization toward the western frontier (Zoellner, 1961, p. 55).
William Cooper’s goal of Manifest Destiny are reflected in Fredrick Jackson Turner’s Thesis
which stated as Americans moved across the wilderness they had to continually adapt and
change their former European ideas; which in turn, helped them create a democratic political
system unlike the monarchies of Europe (Nash, 2001, p.145).

5. William Cooper epitomized the ‘real American’ a man of action, independent, rugged
and adaptable able to change the land and political thought as he continually moved his family
farther west (Nash, 2001, p.145). William was responsible for removing more than 750,000 acres
of wilderness and creating settlements and towns in the Otsego region of upstate New York; thus
he believed he had brought civilization to the residents of the Susquehanna River (Zoellner,
1961, p. 55; Pickering, 1982, p. 301).
James idolized his father, William, and created the character Judge Templeton in The
Pioneers (1923) with similar characteristics such as having American manners, social skills and
morals and he also had a town named after him (Taylor, 1996, p.27; Pickering, 1982, p.301). A
second character created by Cooper reminiscent of William Cooper is Cornelius Littlepage of
Satanstoe (1845); Cornelius is a “tough trailblazer, surveyor, Indian fighter, and hater of the
British” thus many Americans could relate and unify around this character (Zoellner, 1961, p.
58). Like Cornelius and Judge Templeton many of Cooper’s characters in his early novels were
from frontier towns and had religious beliefs that were commonly held during his time period.
Puritan ideas from the Bible were often ardently believed such as the concept that
wilderness should be removed because it was evil and uncivilized; thus, it was better to change
the land to have communities that were civilized and law abiding (Zoellner, 1961, p.58; Nash,
2001, p.10). Cooper’s strict Episcopalian religious views were similar to many people living in
frontier communities and these views were sometimes represented in his characters which were
modeled after actual people and historic events of his time period. The Episcopalian missionary,
Mr. Grant in The Pioneers (1823) reflects the real life experiences of Reverend Nash; a personal
friend of Cooper’s who traveled throughout upstate New York preaching to both Native
Americans and frontier communities (Sixbey, 1966, p.376).

6. Teaching American History
Cooper wanted to teach the public about their past in order to create a new future; thus he
helped the pubic learn about American historical events by reading his novels about
revolutionary past events whether in The Last of the Mohicans (1826) or The Battle at Lake Erie
(1813). Cooper sought to promote nationalism by unifying a country divided in class warfare
thus he wrote The Pilot (1924) his first maritime novel; in which, his main character Tom Coffin,
a Massachusetts sailor, died a hero fighting in the revolutionary war (Berger, 2008, p.643). As
national identity began to form in the American people they continued to read his novels and
relate to his characters (Taylor, 1996, p.26).
Cooper continually attempted to unify his country through his writing by creating a
national identity which would end the internal political fighting that had been occurring in the
government. In the Pioneers (1823) Cooper had two different political characters marry a Whig
and Loyalist. By using this subtle approach Cooper manipulated the government with the intent
to enact political change by uniting the American people toward a better future as occurred with
the characters in his novels (Taylor, 1996, p.26). Many of Cooper’s characters helped create
national unity by separating Americans from their past and previous Europe ideas Americans
were able to forge a new Democratic future.
Nasty’s Contribution to Western Expansionism
Cooper’s most famous literary achievements are his Leatherstocking Tales (1823-1841);
in which, his character Natty Bumppo is able to unite the country as his fellow countrymen read
about Bumppo’s historical adventures in the American Wilderness (Christopherson, 2011,
p.266). Nasty’s attributes are a unique blend of both Native American and European qualities

7. unlike any former characters portrayed in fiction prior to the 1820s. Natty is the quintessential
American character are portrayed as having all the admirable characteristics of both cultures
(May, 1961, p.171; Smith, 2006, p.530).
Cooper again attempted to change the perspective of his fellow Americans toward Native
Americans through his novel thus his use of positive praise about his Native Americans
characters demonstrated to the public these individuals had worthy attributes. Using his character
Natty Bumppo helped Euro-Americans understand Native American customs and lifestyle Natty
is given characteristics and abilities that were generally regarded as ‘purely’ Native American
whether it was his ability to excel at tracking or adept skill at fighting in battles. Also, Natty
choose to change his name from the European name of Bumppo to ‘Deerslayer’ or ‘Hawkeye’
(Smith, 2006, p.547). Cooper’s writing style had Natty always regarding himself as separate
from Native Americans; thus the readers never fully accepted the Native Americans as equals
because their main hero continually called the Native Americans ‘savages’ even as he lived and
fought with them in the wilderness (Smith, 2006, p.556).
Cooper’s Role in Removal of Native Americans from Wilderness
According to Taylor (1996) Cooper’s novels may have contributed to Jackson’s winning
the White House because he was also a ‘backwoodsman’ like Cooper’s very popular character
Natty Bumppo in the Leatherstocking Tales (p.27). Cooper initially supported Andrew Jackson
for President until Jackson helped pass the Indian Removal Act of 1830 (Taylor, 1996, p.27).
The Indian Removal Act (1830) led to the death of more than 1/3 of the 70,000 Native
Americans forced to walk west on the Trail of Tears (May, 1961, p.170). Unfortunately, Cooper
himself contributed to the misconception of the Native American people being considered ‘blood
thirty savages’. Cooper chose to write the Last of the Mohicans (1926) which had European

8. settlers killed by Native Americans at Fort William Henry in New York during the French and
Indian War of the 1750s. Cooper published the story during the controversial Indian Removal
Act (1830) which took five years to pass Congress (May, 1961, p.170). According to Smith
(2006), Native Americans were believed to prevent progress or Western Expansionism because
they lived on wilderness land thus these Native Americans had to be either subdued or removed
in order to promote progress (Smith, 2006 p.527).
Cooper continually promoted the dualism theme in his books whether it was wilderness
or civilization, ‘Nobel Savage’ or ‘Bloodthirsty Native’, farmer or wilderness exploiter all these
dichotomies were employed throughout his books. Cooper’s novels inevitably had the Native
Americans die rather than conform or marry into Euro-American society as occurred in The
Last of the Mohicans (1826); in which the Native American character Unca chose to die rather
than marry the British woman Cora (Smith, 2006, p.542). Susquesus in The Redskins (1846) is
an old Native American who must die in order for the Euro Americans to own the land; thus
death or removal is the theme in his books similar to the actual events that were occurring during
his lifetime (Zoellner, 1961, p.63).
Reversal of Wilderness Idea
Cooper used his novels to shape cultural and environmental public opinion about the
benefits of wilderness by choosing to write the positive values of wilderness rather than negative.
According Cooper, the character Nash Bumppo is purified after entering the wilderness rather
than harmed (Nash, 2001, p.76). Cooper spoke through his character Natty Bumppo in The
Prairie (1927) as he denounces the exploiters of wilderness stating “they scourge the very arth’
with their axes. Such hills and hunting grounds as I have seen stripped of their gifts of the Lord,
without remorse or shame” (Nash, 2001, p.77). Cooper’s attempt to teach the American public

9. that by allowing the land to be ruined in order to gain economic benefit eventually causes harm
to both the people and the land as the wilderness loses both its beauty and value. Nash (2001)
stated that Cooper glorifying the benefits of wilderness by speaking of the “sublimity and
holiness of wild nature” (p.76).
Ironically, Natty Bumppo’s portrayal of the wilderness experience was so enticing and
his words of appreciation for its beauty so enthralling that Cooper was responsible for
encouraging thousands of young people to travel west to see the frontier. Cooper’s books
encouraged western expansionism; thereby, destroying both the wilderness and Native
Americans cultures through the advancement of civilization. According to Nash (2001) Cooper
expected that civilization would eventually replace wilderness and he regarded civilization as the
greater good (p.77). Intriguingly, just as Natty in The Pioneer (1923) is unable to stop the
progress and the advancement of civilization so he continually traveling westward in so doing
he encourages thousands of others to follow in his footsteps.
Alienation
It is worth noting that James Fenimore Cooper lost his own connection to his country and
the wilderness after living seven years in Europe. Cooper stated “I am not with my country—the
void between us is immense” (Nash, 2001, p.76; Waples & Cooper, 1930, p.1). Cooper
attempted to use his character Hugh Rogers from Redskins (1846) to relay his feeling of isolation
to his fellow countrymen; however, they rejected Hugh and also Cooper because they believed
both to be traitors choosing to leave American in order to live in Europe (Zoellner, 1961, p.57).
Ironically, similar to Turner’s thesis in reverse order Cooper lost his American ideals and
connection to the land with each of his moves east farther away from his country thus he became

10. more European immersing himself in Old World traditions and values. Cooper became more
entrenched in European philosophies as he extended his stay for more than seven years on the
European continent thus he chose to remain in France, Germany, and Rome rather than return
to American (Zoellner, 1961, p.57).
After returning to American in 1932 Cooper continually had unfavorable altercations
with the American press and the public because he was not interested in the less opulent
American landscape or people; thus Redskins (1846) is regarded as Cooper’s worst book
(Zoellner, 1961, p.57). Redskins (1846) not well received by the public because the main
character, Hugh Rogers, had separated himself from his home, country and roots he was unable
to relate to his own country, land or people as occurred with the author, Cooper (Zoellner, 1961,
p.57).
In conclusion, James Fenimore Cooper was instrumental in forging the American Identity
and Nationalism. The American public was able to relate to the characters in his books because
they were based on real individuals in similar situations and lived on the American soil.
However, when Cooper chose to write about characters that were more European in nature and
preferred socialism instead Democracy the American public rebelled and did not buy his books
(Zoellner, 1961, p.57). Turner’s Thesis again is relevant to Cooper’s novels because Americans
appeared to enjoy reading novels about the values they held dear such as “individualism,
independence and confidence in the common man that encouraged self-government” (Nash,
2001, p.146).

11. References
Berger, J. (November, 2008). Killing Tom Coffin. Early American Literature. 43(3), 643-670.
Christopherson, B. (June, 2011). The last of the Mohicans and the Missouri crisis. Early
American Literature, 46(2), 263-289
May, C, T. (Winter, 2011) The romance of America trauma, national identity, and the
leather-stocking tales. Early American Studies. 9(1), 167-186.
Pickering, J., H. (July, 1982). Cooper in new dress: The writings of James Fenimore Cooper.
New York History, 63(3), 295-306.
Sivils, M., W. (winter, 2010). Doctor Bat’s ass: Buffon, American degeneracy, and Cooper’s
the prairie. Western American Literature, 44(4), 343-361.
Smith, L., C. (2006) Cross-Cultural hybridity in James Fenimore Cooper's
The last of the Mohicans. American Transcendental Quarterly, 20(3), 527-552.
Sixbey, G. (1966). James Fenimore Cooper, frontier churchman. Historical Magazine of the
Protestant Episcopal Church, 35(4), 373-385.
Taylor, A. (February, 1996).Fenimore Cooper’s America. History Today, 46(2), 21-27
Zoelliner, R. (1961). Fenimore Cooper: Alienated American. American Quarterly, 13(1), 55-
66.