2. The lack of research and appreciation of follower-
ship relative to leadership can be attributed to four
interrelated factors. First, the term followership is
generally associated with negative and unflattering
words such as passive, low status, unimaginative, and
inability to make independent judgment (Alcorn,
1992). Followership is seldom presented as an impor-
tant character trait for any person who aspires to lead
others. Second, the traditional hierarchical relation-
ship between leaders and their followers in bureau-
cratic organizations has distorted the interactive
effects of leadership-followership on organizational
growth, stability, and survival. The predominant view
of leadership behavior in the stereotypical leader-
follower exchange relationship is one in which lead-
ers provide direction, support, and reinforcement and
followers simply follow through on specified or
expected levels of performance (Avolio & Bass,
1988; House & Shamir, 1993). Third, professional
development programs pay less attention to develop-
ing effective follower cultures and skills because of
the erroneous assumption that people know instinc-
tively how to follow. This view may explain why
professional development programs have been slow
in advocating for a shift in organizational culture to
one that promotes effective followership and advo-
cates for culture in which individuals can seamlessly
transition to effective leadership while simultane-
ously fulfilling their followership roles in support of
their superiors. Finally, academic business programs
and professional development programs have not
been proactive in documenting how characteristics and
Perspectives of Senior-Level Executives on
3. Effective Followership and Leadership
Augustine O. Agho
Indiana University Purdue University-Indianapolis
Using a three-page questionnaire administered to a sample of
302 senior-level executives, this study examined the
perceptions of executives on the distinguishing characteristics
of effective leaders and followers. Most of the char -
acteristics associated with effective leaders were perceived to
be different from those associated with effective fol -
lowers. A significant number of the respondents agreed that (a)
leadership and followership are interrelated roles; (b)
leadership and followership skills have to be learned; (c)
effective leaders and effective followers can influence work
performance, quality of work output, satisfaction and morale,
and cohesiveness of work groups; and (d) researchers
have not devoted enough attention to the study of followership.
Keywords: leadership; followership; characteristics; attributes
Author’s Note: I would like to acknowledge the contributions of
individuals who assisted to study and preparation of the article.
Ms. Peggy Suess and Ms. Sandra Johnson managed the task of
identifying study participants and distributing the
questionnaires.
Dr. Christina Mushi-Brunt and Mr. John Collins assisted with
data
entry/analysis and with the creation of tables. Dr. Betty
Velthouse,
Dr. Jack Helmuth, Dr. Roy Barnes, Dr. Yener Kandogan,
Mr. Clarence Page, and Mr. David Gibbons critiqued and
partici-
pated in the pilot testing and instrument development phase of
the
study.
4. 160 Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies
traits of effective followers are different from those
exhibited by ineffective followers.
Murphy (1990) argued that effective followers
have the capacity to “think for themselves and have
initiative, are well balanced and responsible, manage
themselves well and can succeed without a strong
leader” (p. 68). Consistent with Murphy’s argument,
Alcorn (1992) highlighted essential skills of effective
followers to include cooperation, flexibility, integrity,
initiative, and problem solving. In an attempt to fur-
ther elaborate on the distinguishing characteristics of
effective followers, Kelley (1992) presented two
broad dimensions (i.e., independent, critical thinker
vs. dependent, uncritical thinker) of followership.
According to Kelley, there are five basic styles of
followership:
1. Conformist followers are the “yes people” of organ-
izations. They are unenterprising and completely
dependent on a leader for inspiration.
2. Alienated individuals are critical and independent in
their thinking but passive in the conduct of their role.
3. Pragmatist followers are “fence sitters” of organiza-
tions. They avoid making waves and do what is
necessary to master the rules and survive in a
bureaucratic organization.
4. Passive followers adopt the attitude of “better safe
5. than sorry.” They require constant supervision and
are incapable of taking initiative.
5. Effective/exemplary followers are able to think for
themselves and conduct their duties with energy and
assertiveness. Such people are often viewed by both
leaders and coworkers as risk takers and self-starters
who can independently solve problems and be inno-
vative.
Emerging literature on leadership-followership
suggests that effective followers and effective leaders
share many of the same characteristics and that culti-
vating followership skills is a prerequisite for effec-
tive leadership (Brown & Thornborrow, 1996; Kelley,
1992). Employees have to simultaneously play the
roles of followers and leaders because of the nature of
bureaucratic or hierarchical model of organizations.
In bureaucratic or hierarchical organizations, superi-
ors and subordinates spend a great deal of their work
hours following established procedures or implement-
ing or evaluating policies developed by others. Failure
to recognize followership as a complement of leader-
ship may undermine organizational effectiveness and
efficiency. Effective followership is viewed as both
an art and science, just as effective leadership is an art
and a science requiring skill and knowledge.
Some authors have argued that a balanced approach
to the study of leadership is necessary to understand
and appreciate the contribution of followers to leader -
ship and organizational effectiveness (Dvir & Shamir,
2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Hollander, 1993; Lord,
Brown, & Freiberg, 1999; Yukl, 1998). Followership
encompasses important character traits for any person
who aspires to lead others. Effective followers are
6. cooperative and collaborative, honest, enthusiastic,
innovative, independent, credible, and intelligent
(Blackshear, 2003; Chaleff, 1995; Kelley, 1988,
1992). There are individuals with excellent attributes
of followers who may not be good leaders or even
desire to be in a position of leadership, but it would be
difficult to find a good leader who is not also a good
follower.
The twofold purpose of this study was to examine
the similarities and differences between the distin-
guishing characteristics of effective leaders and effec-
tive followers and to investigate the perspectives of
senior-level executives on questions regarding leader-
ship/followership. Specifically, the questions explored
the importance and contributions of effective follow-
ers, the influence of effective followers on quality of
work output, whether followership skills have to be
taught, whether adequate research attention has been
devoted to the study of followership, and whether
the roles of leaders and followers are interrelated.
Followership studies aimed at comparing and con-
trasting the characteristics of effective followers
and effective leaders will provide the foundation
for the integration of leader-follower development
programs.
Method
Questionnaire Design and Data Collection
The three-part questionnaire used to collect data
for this study was developed in four successive steps.
First, a literature review was conducted to identify
key themes in leadership-followership articles and the
characteristics of leaders and followers. Second, the
7. first draft of the questionnaire was critiqued by a
group of faculty with expertise in management devel-
opment and research methods. Third, the revised
questionnaire was piloted and refined based on
feedback from a group of senior-level executives rep-
resenting business, education, and health care organi-
zations. Finally, the questionnaire was submitted to
the human subject review committee for review and
approval.
Agho / Effective Followership and Leadership 161
Part 1 contained a listing of 20 characteristics of
superior leaders identified by Kouzes and Posner
(1990). Respondents were asked to rank the charac-
teristics they value and admire most about effective
leaders and effective followers. A score of 1 signifies
the most important characteristic and a score of 20
signifies the least important characteristic. Part 2 of
the questionnaire contained general statements regard-
ing the contributions and importance of effective fol -
lowership. Specifically, respondents were asked to
indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree
with statement such as “effective followership is a
prerequisite to be an effective leader,” “qualities of
good followership are the same as the qualities typi-
cally associated with good leadership,” and “good
followership is simply doing what one is told to do.”
Part 3 contained demographic information such as
age, experience, education, gender, race/ethnicity, and
academic discipline. A total of 1,500 senior-level
executives were invited to participate in this study by
completing a three-page questionnaire.
8. Sample and Data Analysis
The sample for this study consisted of senior-level
executives in for-profit and not-for-profit sectors,
including community health centers, medical centers,
accounting firms, consulting firms, local and federal
government agencies, 4-year and research/doctoral
academic institutions, and community-based organi-
zations. Included in the study were individuals with
job titles of chief executive officer/president, vice
president, provost, dean, chief financial officer, chief
operations officer, executive director, bureau chief,
and chancellor. Names, titles, and addresses were
obtained from organizational Web sites and directo-
ries. Descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, range, and fre-
quencies), t tests comparing means of ranking for
each of the characteristics of effective leaders and fol -
lowers, and Spearman rank order correlations for
mean ranking of characteristics of effective leaders
and followers were computed using Version 16.0 of
the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences.
Results
Of the 1,500 surveys mailed, 302 were returned
(20.1% response rate). Table 1 presents the demo-
graphic characteristics of the respondents. As noted, a
majority of the respondents have held leadership posi -
tions for more than 12 years, completed more than 16
years of education, have academic backgrounds in
social science and humanities, played organized
sports in high school, and work for not-for-profit
organizations, with a higher percentage working in
the field of education. In terms of age, race, and gen-
der, most of the respondents are older than 55 years of
9. age, White, and male.
Table 2 shows the ranking of the characteristics of
effective followers and effective leaders. Based on the
mean scores of each of the listed characteristics,
respondents perceived the five most important charac-
teristics of leaders to be honesty/integrity, competent,
Table 1
Demographic Profile of Respondents (n = 302)
Years in a Leadership Position Percentage
< 1 year 1.0
1 to 3 years 4.0
4 to 7 years 9.9
8 to 12 years 16.9
> 12 years 67.2
Highest level of education completed
High school 1.3
Associate 0.7
Bachelor’s 9.6
Master’s 54.6
Doctorate 32.5
Academic background
Business/management 18.9
Social science/humanities 41.7
Health care 28.8
Other 8.9
Racial/ethnic background
White/Caucasian/European American 77.8
Black/African American 16.6
Asian 0.3
American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.3
Hispanic/Latino 2.0
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 0.3
10. Other 0.3
Played organized sports
Yes 63.2
No 35.4
Gender
Male 57.0
Female 41.7
Age
18 to 34 2.3
35 to 54 42.1
≥ 55 53.3
Description of type of organization
For profit 7.3
Not for profit 75.5
Government 15.6
Employment setting
Business 25.8
Education 27.2
Self-employed 2.0
Other 43.0
162 Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies
forward looking, inspiring, and intelligent. In com-
parison, the respondents ranked honesty/integrity,
competent, dependable, loyal, and supportive as the
five most important characteristics of effective fol -
lowers. The results of the Spearman’s rank order cor-
relation revealed a significant (r = .89, p < .01)
relationship between the original rankings of the char-
acteristics of effective leaders obtained by Kouzes
and Posner (1990) and the rankings reported by the
respondents in this study. No significant relationships
were found between the rankings for effective leaders
11. as reported by Kouzes and Posner and the character-
istics of effective followers reported by the respon-
dents in this study (r = .20, p > .05) or between the
respondents’ rankings of the characteristics of effec-
tive leaders and effective followers (r = .39, p > .05).
According to the results of t tests comparing means
of ranking for each of the characteristics of effective
leaders and followers presented in Table 3, the
respondents perceived that there are differences
between the distinguishing characteristics of effective
leaders and effective followers. Of the 20 characteris-
tics respondents were asked to rank, there were 14
characteristics in which statistically significant differ -
ences were observed. They perceived effective lead-
ers and followers to share only 6 characteristics (i.e.,
intelligent, broadminded, straightforward, ambitious,
determined, and independent).
As presented in Tables 4 and 5, rankings of the
characteristics of effective leaders and followers did
not vary by gender, race/ethnicity, education, or expe-
rience of the respondents. A review of the rank order
correlations showed that men and women (r = .96,
p < .001), Whites and African Americans (r = .93, p <
.001), respondents with less than 16 years of educa-
tion and those with more than 17 years (r = .95, p <
.001), and respondents with 7 or less years of leader-
ship experience and those with 8 or more years of
leadership experience (r = .96, p < .001) have similar
views on the characteristics of effective leadership.
Likewise, men and women (r = .96, p < .001), Whites
and African Americans (r = .92, p < .001), respon-
dents with less than 16 years of education and those
with more than 17 years (r = .95, p < .001), and
12. respondents with 7 or less years of leadership experi-
ence and those with 8 or more years of leadership
experience (r = .95, p < .001) have similar views on
the characteristics of effective followership.
Table 6 shows the responses of participants regard-
ing their views on the definitions, contributions,
importance, and interrelatedness of followership and
leadership. By combining the percentages of the
respondents who either strongly agree or agree with
the statements provided, there was overwhelming
agreement among respondents (89.7%) that leaders
and followers assume different roles within organiza-
tions as circumstance dictates and that leadership and
followership are interrelated roles. In addition, 99%
reported that they believe that good leadership
enhances followers and 94% believe that good fol-
lowership enhances leaders. Of the respondents, 96%
disagreed that “good followership is simply doing
what one is told to do,” and a similarly high percent-
age of respondents (95.7%) disagreed that “everyone
knows how to follow.” A significant number of
respondents (77.5%) agreed that researchers have not
paid sufficient attention to the roles followers play in
the leadership process. There was also considerable
agreement (74.8%) that effective followership skill is
a prerequisite to be an effective leader. A majority of
the respondents (79.8%) disagreed with the statement
that “effective task accomplishment is just the result
of good leadership, not good followership” and that
“leadership is more important than followership”
(66.6%). An overwhelming majority (99%) agreed
that effective followers and effective leaders can
influence performance of work units, quality of work
output, work satisfaction and morale, and work group
14. Independent 20 19 19
a. Original rankings reported by Kouzes and Posner (1990).
Agho / Effective Followership and Leadership 163
cohesiveness. In response to the question pertaining
to the acquisition of leadership skills, only 39.4%
agreed that leadership has to be taught and only
43.7% agreed that qualities of followership are the
same as the qualities typically associated with good
leadership.
Table 4
Ranking of the Characteristics of Effective Leadership by
Gender, Race/Ethnicity,
Education, and Years of Experience of Respondents
Gender Ethnicity/Race Years Education Years
Experience
Characteristics Male Female White African American ≤ 16 ≥ 17
≤ 7 ≥ 8
Honesty/integrity 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Competent 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
Forward looking 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
Inspiring 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 4
Intelligent 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5
Fairminded 6 6 6 7 7 6 6 6
Broadminded 15 13 14 17 16 14 14 14
Straightforward 11 11 10 12 8 10 11 10
17. Agree
(%)
Disagree
(%)
Strongly
Disagree (%)
1. We are all both leaders and followers, assuming different
roles within
our team as the circumstances dictate.
54.6 35.1 8.3 1.3
2. Leadership is more important than followership. 10.9 20.5
55.0 11.6
3. Good followership is simply doing what one is told to do.
0.3 3.0 47.4 48.7
4. Effective task accomplishment is the result of good
leadership—not
good followership.
2.0 16.2 61.9 17.9
5. Leadership has to be taught. 6.3 33.1 47.0 11.9
6. Everyone knows how to follow. 0.7 2.3 57.3 38.4
7. Leadership and followership are interrelated roles. 45.0 47.7
5.0 0.7
8. Researchers have paid sufficient attention to the roles
followers play
in the leadership process.
1.0 13.2 64.9 12.6
9. Good leadership enhances followers. 61.9 37.1 0.3 0.0
18. 10. Good followership enhances leaders. 51.3 43.0 3.0 0.7
11. Effective followership skill is a prerequisite to be an
effective leader. 19.2 55.6 20.9 1.7
12. Qualities of good followership are the same as the qualities
typically
associated with good leadership
3.6 40.1 46.4 6.0
13. Effective followers can influence:
Performance of work units 49.3 49.3 0.3 0.3
Quality of work output 53.3 45.7 0.0 0.3
Worker satisfaction and morale 55.0 43.0 1.0 0.0
Work group cohesiveness 57.3 41.1 0.7 0.0
14. Effective leaders can influence:
Performance of work units 61.6 37.4 0.0 0.3
Quality of work output 60.6 37.7 0.7 0.3
Worker satisfaction and morale 64.9 33.8 0.3 0.3
Work group cohesiveness 62.9 34.8 1.0 0.0
Table 5
Ranking of the Characteristics of Effective Followership by
Gender,
Race/Ethnicity, Education, Years of Experience of Respondents
Gender Ethnicity/Race Years Education Years
Experience
Characteristics Male Female White African American ≤ 16 ≥ 17
≤ 7 ≥ 8
Honesty/integrity 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Competent 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
Forward looking 17 18 17 16 19 17 16 17
Inspiring 19 20 20 18 18 20 19 20
19. Intelligent 6 6 6 5 6 6 5 6
Fairminded 11 9 9 11 9 11 10 10
Broadminded 14 14 14 13 14 14 14 14
Straightforward 9 10 8 15 10 9 12 8
Imaginative 15 15 15 14 15 15 11 15
Dependable 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3
Supportive 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Courageous 16 16 16 17 16 16 18 16
Caring 8 13 10 12 12 8 9 9
Cooperative 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Mature 10 8 11 9 11 10 8 11
Ambitious 18 19 18 20 17 19 20 18
Determined 12 12 13 8 13 12 13 12
Self-controlled 13 11 12 10 8 13 15 13
Loyal 5 5 5 6 5 5 6 5
Independent 20 17 19 19 20 18 17 19
Agho / Effective Followership and Leadership 165
Discussion
Although the findings of this study did not suggest
that the characteristics of effective leaders and fol -
lowers are identical, the perception of the senior-level
executives included in this study is that effective fol -
lowers play significant roles in fostering leadership
and organizational effectiveness. A significant num-
ber of the respondents agreed that followership skills
should be viewed as prerequisites for effective leader -
ship and that leadership and followership are interre-
lated roles.
Consistent with the findings obtained in previous
studies (Avolio & Bass, 1988; Kouzes & Posner,
20. 1990; Yukl, 1998), effective leadership is perceived to
entail qualities of being honest, competent, forward
looking, inspiring, and intelligent and that effective
leaders and followers share some characteristics (Dvir
& Shamir, 2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Kelley,
1988, 1992). Respondents in this study ranked being
honest and competent as important characteristics of
effective leaders and followers.
Compared to the rankings of the characteristics of
effective leaders, being dependable, loyal, and coop-
erative ranked higher as desirable characteristics for
followers. The difference in rankings may suggest
that leaders are expected to set the tone within their
organization to enable their followers to be as effec-
tive as possible, empower followers to take initiative,
and exert leadership over their specific area of work
and encourage honest upward communication.
Interestingly, the rankings of the characteristics of
effective followers and leaders and respondents’
views on the importance of followers were found to
be consistent across gender, racial/ethnic groups,
level of educational attainment, and years of experi -
ence in leadership position. Respondents perceived
that followership is just as important as effective lead-
ership and that the actions of both leaders and follow -
ers can impact work performance, quality of work
output, satisfaction and morale, and cohesiveness of
work groups. Consistent with the views expressed by
those who believe that a balanced approach to the
study of leadership is necessary to understand and
appreciate the contribution of followers to leadership
and organizational effectiveness (Blackshear, 2003;
Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001;
Hollander, 1993; Kelley, 1988, 1992; Lord et al.,
21. 1999; Yukl, 1998), this study provides some credence
to the argument that followership skills may be
viewed as prerequisites to be an effective leader and
for effective followership to be viewed as both an art
and science, just as effective leadership is an art and a
science requiring skill and knowledge.
Three major implications can be drawn from the
findings of this study. First, in light of global competi -
tion for intellectual and human resources, increased
attention to developing effective followers should be
viewed as a necessary condition for organizational
success. Organizations can create an environment and
culture that fosters effective leadership-followership
interaction by encouraging leaders to adopt a manage-
ment style based on the philosophy that effective
leadership is the outcome of the fruitful interaction
between those who lead and those who follow.
Second, the role of effective leaders will always
remain critical to organizational success. However,
successful leaders will be those who are able to
acknowledge and appreciate the contributions and
vital roles of effective and mature followers. By
adopting this view of leadership, leaders and follow -
ers will have a shared responsibility for organizational
successes or failures. Lastly, follower-oriented lead-
ers must develop the skills to integrate effective
followership into performance evaluation for all
employees and to acknowledge outstanding examples
of effective followership. For this to occur, leadership
development programs would have to be reoriented to
highlight the concept and practice of effective follow -
ership and to train managers at all levels on how to
promote and manage effective followership.
22. Conclusion
This article highlights the perspectives of senior-
level executives on similarities and differences in the
characteristics of effective leaders and effective fol -
lowers and reinforces emerging themes identified in
the literature on leadership-followership regarding the
importance and significance of effective followership
(Dvir & Shamir, 2003; Ehrhart & Klein, 2001; Kelley,
1988, 1992; Lee, 1991; Moore, 1976). Although the
data and methods used are not robust enough to per-
mit generalization of the findings or to draw conclu-
sions regarding cause-effect relationship between
effective leadership and followership, the findings of
the investigation are interesting enough to warrant
further research by academics and manageme nt devel-
opment practitioners. To advance the study of leader-
ship-followership, researchers should (a) develop a
theoretical model of followership to explain how effec-
tive followership interacts with effective leadership to
impact organizational performance, (b) examine the
166 Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies
distinguishing characteristics and traits of effective
followership as perceived by followers, (c) develop a
valid and reliable instrument to measure follower-
specific traits and attributes, (d) examine the recipro-
cal relationship between effective leaders and effective
followers, (e) identify organizational factors that pro-
mote or discourage effective followership, (f) develop
an integrated model that shows causal relationships
between variables and provide a process model of
effective followership, and (g) examine the extent
23. to which effective followership enhances effective
leadership.
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Augustine O. Agho is the Dean of the Indiana University School
of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences at Indiana University
Purdue
University-Indianapolis (IUPUI). Prior to Joining IUPUI in July
2008, he was the founding Dean of the School of Health Profes -
sions and Studies at the University of Michigan-Flint. He
received
his PhD in Hospital and Health Administration from the
University
of Iowa in 1989, Master of Health Administration from
Governors
State University in 1985, and Bachelor of Sciences in
Management
Sciences from Alaska Pacific University in 1983. He has
published
several peer-reviewed articles and has received grants from
several
government agencies and foundations and awards for his
teaching
and research activities.
Ques - 1
In the discussions of the database operation, what is the foreign
key and why do we need it?
Ques - 2
26. Explain how the Packet Switching can use the communication
capacity in much more efficient way than the Circuit Switching,
especially for voice communications without much losing signal
quality.
Ques – 3
Develop at least four ways to gather knowledge from the
personal and undocumented expertise of professionals within a
corporation?
Ques – 4
The Balanced Scorecard framework is a handy business health
indicator about a business. It is composed of Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs) in four dimensions: Financial, Business
Processes, Customers, and Employees. For a retail store like
Walmart, suggest at least two KPIs for each dimension of the
Balanced Scorecard framework.
Ques – 5
During the system development, user involvement in the
development process is important to ensure the user
requirements are correctly reflected in the system
specifications. However, the user group need to be cautious in
dealing with the system developers. What kind of problems
would the user group may raise from overly interacting with the
system developers?
