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Trust and Power (1979)
- Niklas Luhmann
/김준한
x 2017 Fall
Table
of
Contents
01 Why This Book
02 About the Author
03 Trust and Power
04 Trust in Automation
05 So What?
Why This Book
3
신뢰란 무엇일까?
어떻게 이론가들(사회학자, 철학자 등)은 신뢰/불신을 정의하고 있을까?
자유도를 위한 우회전략타보지 못 한 사람들의 불안
About the author
4
Niklas Luhmann (1927~1998)
- 독일 태생 sociologist
- 20세기의 대표적 사회과학 이론가
- Social Systems Theory의 창시자
Social Systems Theory
1. 시스템과 환경, 안과 밖을 구분하고자 함
2. Social System은 사람들 간 커뮤니케이션이 아닌

커뮤니케이션 간 커뮤니케이션으로 이루어진다
3. 사람들은 social system에 속해 있는 것이 아닌

환경에 속해있다
4. 사람들이 communicate하는 것이 아니다!
5
Luhmann’s ‘Trust and Power’
• Trust와 Power로 양분
• 사람 간의 신뢰, 시스템 및 사회에 대한 신뢰에 대한 루만의 생각을 담고 있음
• 신뢰에 관한 권위 있는 서적 중 하나
• Definition of Trust
• Trust, Familiarity, Confidence
• Trust and Distrust
• Four Conditions of Interpersonal Trust
이 발제에서 다루고자 하는 내용
6
Luhmann’s Definition of Trust
Social Complexity
• 환경/사회/시스템은 기본적으로 complex한 존재
• Complexity란 시스템과 환경을 구분짓는 용도로서 사용
• 시스템 내부의 complexity가 증가하면 시스템은 자신과 환경 간의 complexity는 줄일 수 있음
1. 사회의 subsystem(politics, economics, law, etc.)은 사회 전체 환경의 complexity를
줄여준다.
2. Subsystem은 사회 내 자신의 complexity를 줄일 수 있다.
Environment
System
Society
Politics
Econo
mics
Law
7
Luhmann’s Definition of Trust
사회 속 신뢰의 역할
• 신뢰가 없는 사회는 있을 수 없다
• “Trust is a basic fact of social life” (아침에 일어나게 하는 원동력)
• 시스템에 관련하여 세계는 “overly complex”한 공간. 오직 인간만이 세계의 complexity를
알고, 자신의 환경을 선택할 수 있는 결정권을 가진다. (자기 자신의 보존을 위해)
• 이러한 결정을 할 수 있는, complexity를 조정하고, 감독하고, 줄일 수 있는 방법이 신뢰하는
것. 즉, 신뢰는 complexity를 줄이기 위해 존재한다.
“Where there is trust there are increased possibilities for experience and action,

there is an increase in the complexity of the social system and also in the number of
possibilities which can be reconciled with its structure,

because trust is an effective form of complexity reduction”
8
Luhmann’s Definition of Trust
• 성공적인 결과는 행동 없이 나타나지 않는다. 행동 이전에 “commitment”가 먼저 있어야 한다.
• 이 시간 차의 문제는 신뢰에 의해 “bridge”된다.
• 전체적인 complexity가 시스템의 “divide up”으로 인해 낮아진다.
• 신뢰로 인해 신뢰를 받는 대상은 더 성공적인 수행을 할 수 있게 된다.
Success와 Action 간의 Bridge 역할
운전자가 차를

믿고 탑승
사고 없이

운전 완료
시간 차 극복을 위해 신뢰가 필요
중간중간 피드백을 주며 complexity reduce
Complex Sequence
9
Trust, Familiarity, and Confidence
이 셋의 관계
• Familiarity는 신뢰에 선행되어야 하는 조건
• Familiar한 것은 complex하지 않음
• 세상의 extremity는 의식 속에서 사라짐
• 따라서 Familiar한 것은 상대적으로 simple할 수 밖에 없음
• Familiar한 것은 과거의 것 즉, history.
• Trust는 history를 reliable background로서 필요로 함
• Readiness to trust는 따라서 familiarity와 묶여있다.
• Self-confidence 또한 신뢰에 선행되어야 하는 또다른 조건
• Inner-security가 있을 때 사람들은 서로를 더 신뢰
• 신뢰를 통해 reduction of complexity가 완료되지 않았을 경우 self-
confidence 가 그 역할을 대체
10
Trust and Distrust
Definition of Distrust
• Not just the opposite of trust; also a functional equivalent for trust
• Trust simplifies life by the taking of a risk
• Surplus of complexity -> too many demands on the individual, incapable
of action
• People who don’t trust -> equivalent strategies for reduction of complexity

-> turn his expectation into negative ones -> distrustful
• Also achieves simplification
11
Trust and Distrust
Threshold로 인해 달라지는 Trust와 Distrust
• Perception psychology에서 등장 - artificial discontinuity
• 특징
• Level out the area of experience before and after the threshold - simplification
• Mechanism for the reduction of complexity to relatively simple problems
=> 특정 기점을 넘게 되면 신뢰로 혹은 불신으로 뛰어 넘어가게 됨
• Generalizing familiarity and trust rests on the settings of boundaries which operate
thresholds
• Trust -> Distrust : makes his change of attitude socially apparent - Distrustful
behavior
• Reinforcing effect
12
The Four Conditions of Interpersonal Trust
1. 신뢰의 과정은 상호 간의 commitment를 요구하며 Truster와 Trustee가 순차적으로 이행 

2. 신뢰의 참여자는 정확한 상황과 상대방도 상황을 알고 있다는 것을 인지해야 함.
1. 쉽게 해석될 수 있는 상황이라는 조건이 필요

3. 상대방에게 신뢰를 demand할 수는 없다. 오직 offer되고 accept될 수 있을 뿐 

4. 신뢰는 얻어야 하는 것
Trust in Automation: Integrating
Empirical Evidence on Factors That
Influence Trust
- Kevin Anthony Hoff, Masooda
Bashir
/김준한
x 2017 Fall
14
About this paper
Human-Automation 간의 신뢰 연구를 메타-리뷰
•신뢰의 정의
•사람 간 신뢰와 사람 대 기계 간의 신뢰를 비교
•사람 대 기계의 신뢰에 영향을 미치는 요인 분류 후 논문 인용
•Design Implication
Definition of Trust
15
이러한 차이에도 불구하고, 공통점이 존재 : Trust에 관해선 세 가지 요소가 필요 (Hardin, 2006)
1. There must be a truster to give trust, there must be a trustee to accept trust, and something must
be at stake
2. The trustee must have some sort of incentive to perform the task
incentive can vary widely, from a monetary reward to a benevolent desire to help others
In interactions with technology, the incentive is usually based on the designer’s intended use
for a system
3. There must be a possibility that the trustee will fail to perform the task, inviting uncertainty and
risk
Rotter(1967) - Disposition toward the world and the people in it
Barber(1983) - Interpersonal trust as a set of socially learned expectations vary on social order
Pruitt and Rubin (1986) - A number of beliefs about others
Mayer et al. (1960) - Willingness to accept vulnerability
Lee and See (2004) - the attitude that an agent will help achieve an individual’s goals in a situation
characterized by uncertainty and vulnerability
Formation of Trust
16
1. Affective processing
2. Cognitive processing
Analogic thought process : utilize societal norms and the opinions of others to determine
trustworthiness
Analytic thought process : rational evaluations of a trustee’s salient characteristics
충분한 cognitive resource가 available할 때 analytic processing 사용
Cognitive resource가 제한될 때 anagogic processing 또는 affective thought process 사용 - 의식적 사고
없이도 작동할 수 있음
Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust
17
Similarity
•At the most fundamental level, the two types of trust are similar in that they represent
situation-specific attitudes that are relevant only when something is exchanged in a
cooperative relationship characterized by uncertainty.
•Specific examples
•People apply socially learned rules, such as politeness, to interactions with
machines
•Neural mechanisms utilized by participants in interpersonal trust games are also
used in trust-based evaluations of eBay website offers
•Why? People’s trust in technological systems represents their trust in the designers
of such systems
=> Human-Automation trust는 그래서, specific type of interpersonal trust in which the
trustee is one step removed from the truster
Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust
18
Difference
•Attribute의 차이
•Interpersonal Trust : Ability, Integrity, or Benevolence of a trustee
•Human­automation trust : depends on the Performance, Process, or Purpose
•Progression의 차이
•Interpersonal Trust : initially based on the mere predictability of a trustee’s actions
because people tend to enter relationships with strangers cautiously. As
interpersonal relationships progress, the dependability or integrity of a trustee
becomes the core basis of trust. Finally, fully mature interpersonal relationships are
based on faith or benevolence
•Human­automation trust : Reverse order. Often exhibit a positivity bias in their trust
of novel automated systems. People commonly assume that machines are perfect.
Therefore, their initial trust is based on faith. However, this trust rapidly dissolves
following system errors; as relationships with automated systems progress,
dependability and predictability replace faith as the primary basis of trust
Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust
19
Dispositional Trust
Overall tendency to trust automation, independent of context or a specific system
•Age
•Gender
•Personality
Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust
20
Situational Trust
•External environment
•Type of system, its complexity, and the difficulty of the task for which it is used
•Operator’s workload
•If automation errors become more salient
•Risk-taking
•Under high-risk conditions, operators may have a tendency to reduce their reliance on
complex automation but increase their reliance on simple automation
•Decisional freedom
•Trust likely has a weaker effect on reliance in the presence of situational factors that inhibit
decisional freedom
Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust
21
Appearance/Anthropomorphism
Ease of use
Communication style
Transparency/Feedback
Level of control
So What?
22
‣ Reduction of complexity란 관점에서 자율주행차에 대한 신뢰를 볼 수 있는가?
‣ 정보를 각기 다른 상황에서 다르게 보여주는게 필요한가? Depending on the risk
‣ 자율주행차를 신뢰하게 되는 threshold 지점은 어디인가? 어떤 요소가 이러한 threshold를 만들까?
‣ 자동차는 사람의 생명과 직결되는 문제기 때문에 신뢰의 point가 더 첨예하게 나타나지 않을까?

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Trust and Power (1979) by Niklas Luhmann

  • 1. Trust and Power (1979) - Niklas Luhmann /김준한 x 2017 Fall
  • 2. Table of Contents 01 Why This Book 02 About the Author 03 Trust and Power 04 Trust in Automation 05 So What?
  • 3. Why This Book 3 신뢰란 무엇일까? 어떻게 이론가들(사회학자, 철학자 등)은 신뢰/불신을 정의하고 있을까? 자유도를 위한 우회전략타보지 못 한 사람들의 불안
  • 4. About the author 4 Niklas Luhmann (1927~1998) - 독일 태생 sociologist - 20세기의 대표적 사회과학 이론가 - Social Systems Theory의 창시자 Social Systems Theory 1. 시스템과 환경, 안과 밖을 구분하고자 함 2. Social System은 사람들 간 커뮤니케이션이 아닌
 커뮤니케이션 간 커뮤니케이션으로 이루어진다 3. 사람들은 social system에 속해 있는 것이 아닌
 환경에 속해있다 4. 사람들이 communicate하는 것이 아니다!
  • 5. 5 Luhmann’s ‘Trust and Power’ • Trust와 Power로 양분 • 사람 간의 신뢰, 시스템 및 사회에 대한 신뢰에 대한 루만의 생각을 담고 있음 • 신뢰에 관한 권위 있는 서적 중 하나 • Definition of Trust • Trust, Familiarity, Confidence • Trust and Distrust • Four Conditions of Interpersonal Trust 이 발제에서 다루고자 하는 내용
  • 6. 6 Luhmann’s Definition of Trust Social Complexity • 환경/사회/시스템은 기본적으로 complex한 존재 • Complexity란 시스템과 환경을 구분짓는 용도로서 사용 • 시스템 내부의 complexity가 증가하면 시스템은 자신과 환경 간의 complexity는 줄일 수 있음 1. 사회의 subsystem(politics, economics, law, etc.)은 사회 전체 환경의 complexity를 줄여준다. 2. Subsystem은 사회 내 자신의 complexity를 줄일 수 있다. Environment System Society Politics Econo mics Law
  • 7. 7 Luhmann’s Definition of Trust 사회 속 신뢰의 역할 • 신뢰가 없는 사회는 있을 수 없다 • “Trust is a basic fact of social life” (아침에 일어나게 하는 원동력) • 시스템에 관련하여 세계는 “overly complex”한 공간. 오직 인간만이 세계의 complexity를 알고, 자신의 환경을 선택할 수 있는 결정권을 가진다. (자기 자신의 보존을 위해) • 이러한 결정을 할 수 있는, complexity를 조정하고, 감독하고, 줄일 수 있는 방법이 신뢰하는 것. 즉, 신뢰는 complexity를 줄이기 위해 존재한다. “Where there is trust there are increased possibilities for experience and action,
 there is an increase in the complexity of the social system and also in the number of possibilities which can be reconciled with its structure,
 because trust is an effective form of complexity reduction”
  • 8. 8 Luhmann’s Definition of Trust • 성공적인 결과는 행동 없이 나타나지 않는다. 행동 이전에 “commitment”가 먼저 있어야 한다. • 이 시간 차의 문제는 신뢰에 의해 “bridge”된다. • 전체적인 complexity가 시스템의 “divide up”으로 인해 낮아진다. • 신뢰로 인해 신뢰를 받는 대상은 더 성공적인 수행을 할 수 있게 된다. Success와 Action 간의 Bridge 역할 운전자가 차를
 믿고 탑승 사고 없이
 운전 완료 시간 차 극복을 위해 신뢰가 필요 중간중간 피드백을 주며 complexity reduce Complex Sequence
  • 9. 9 Trust, Familiarity, and Confidence 이 셋의 관계 • Familiarity는 신뢰에 선행되어야 하는 조건 • Familiar한 것은 complex하지 않음 • 세상의 extremity는 의식 속에서 사라짐 • 따라서 Familiar한 것은 상대적으로 simple할 수 밖에 없음 • Familiar한 것은 과거의 것 즉, history. • Trust는 history를 reliable background로서 필요로 함 • Readiness to trust는 따라서 familiarity와 묶여있다. • Self-confidence 또한 신뢰에 선행되어야 하는 또다른 조건 • Inner-security가 있을 때 사람들은 서로를 더 신뢰 • 신뢰를 통해 reduction of complexity가 완료되지 않았을 경우 self- confidence 가 그 역할을 대체
  • 10. 10 Trust and Distrust Definition of Distrust • Not just the opposite of trust; also a functional equivalent for trust • Trust simplifies life by the taking of a risk • Surplus of complexity -> too many demands on the individual, incapable of action • People who don’t trust -> equivalent strategies for reduction of complexity
 -> turn his expectation into negative ones -> distrustful • Also achieves simplification
  • 11. 11 Trust and Distrust Threshold로 인해 달라지는 Trust와 Distrust • Perception psychology에서 등장 - artificial discontinuity • 특징 • Level out the area of experience before and after the threshold - simplification • Mechanism for the reduction of complexity to relatively simple problems => 특정 기점을 넘게 되면 신뢰로 혹은 불신으로 뛰어 넘어가게 됨 • Generalizing familiarity and trust rests on the settings of boundaries which operate thresholds • Trust -> Distrust : makes his change of attitude socially apparent - Distrustful behavior • Reinforcing effect
  • 12. 12 The Four Conditions of Interpersonal Trust 1. 신뢰의 과정은 상호 간의 commitment를 요구하며 Truster와 Trustee가 순차적으로 이행 
 2. 신뢰의 참여자는 정확한 상황과 상대방도 상황을 알고 있다는 것을 인지해야 함. 1. 쉽게 해석될 수 있는 상황이라는 조건이 필요
 3. 상대방에게 신뢰를 demand할 수는 없다. 오직 offer되고 accept될 수 있을 뿐 
 4. 신뢰는 얻어야 하는 것
  • 13. Trust in Automation: Integrating Empirical Evidence on Factors That Influence Trust - Kevin Anthony Hoff, Masooda Bashir /김준한 x 2017 Fall
  • 14. 14 About this paper Human-Automation 간의 신뢰 연구를 메타-리뷰 •신뢰의 정의 •사람 간 신뢰와 사람 대 기계 간의 신뢰를 비교 •사람 대 기계의 신뢰에 영향을 미치는 요인 분류 후 논문 인용 •Design Implication
  • 15. Definition of Trust 15 이러한 차이에도 불구하고, 공통점이 존재 : Trust에 관해선 세 가지 요소가 필요 (Hardin, 2006) 1. There must be a truster to give trust, there must be a trustee to accept trust, and something must be at stake 2. The trustee must have some sort of incentive to perform the task incentive can vary widely, from a monetary reward to a benevolent desire to help others In interactions with technology, the incentive is usually based on the designer’s intended use for a system 3. There must be a possibility that the trustee will fail to perform the task, inviting uncertainty and risk Rotter(1967) - Disposition toward the world and the people in it Barber(1983) - Interpersonal trust as a set of socially learned expectations vary on social order Pruitt and Rubin (1986) - A number of beliefs about others Mayer et al. (1960) - Willingness to accept vulnerability Lee and See (2004) - the attitude that an agent will help achieve an individual’s goals in a situation characterized by uncertainty and vulnerability
  • 16. Formation of Trust 16 1. Affective processing 2. Cognitive processing Analogic thought process : utilize societal norms and the opinions of others to determine trustworthiness Analytic thought process : rational evaluations of a trustee’s salient characteristics 충분한 cognitive resource가 available할 때 analytic processing 사용 Cognitive resource가 제한될 때 anagogic processing 또는 affective thought process 사용 - 의식적 사고 없이도 작동할 수 있음
  • 17. Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust 17 Similarity •At the most fundamental level, the two types of trust are similar in that they represent situation-specific attitudes that are relevant only when something is exchanged in a cooperative relationship characterized by uncertainty. •Specific examples •People apply socially learned rules, such as politeness, to interactions with machines •Neural mechanisms utilized by participants in interpersonal trust games are also used in trust-based evaluations of eBay website offers •Why? People’s trust in technological systems represents their trust in the designers of such systems => Human-Automation trust는 그래서, specific type of interpersonal trust in which the trustee is one step removed from the truster
  • 18. Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust 18 Difference •Attribute의 차이 •Interpersonal Trust : Ability, Integrity, or Benevolence of a trustee •Human­automation trust : depends on the Performance, Process, or Purpose •Progression의 차이 •Interpersonal Trust : initially based on the mere predictability of a trustee’s actions because people tend to enter relationships with strangers cautiously. As interpersonal relationships progress, the dependability or integrity of a trustee becomes the core basis of trust. Finally, fully mature interpersonal relationships are based on faith or benevolence •Human­automation trust : Reverse order. Often exhibit a positivity bias in their trust of novel automated systems. People commonly assume that machines are perfect. Therefore, their initial trust is based on faith. However, this trust rapidly dissolves following system errors; as relationships with automated systems progress, dependability and predictability replace faith as the primary basis of trust
  • 19. Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust 19 Dispositional Trust Overall tendency to trust automation, independent of context or a specific system •Age •Gender •Personality
  • 20. Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust 20 Situational Trust •External environment •Type of system, its complexity, and the difficulty of the task for which it is used •Operator’s workload •If automation errors become more salient •Risk-taking •Under high-risk conditions, operators may have a tendency to reduce their reliance on complex automation but increase their reliance on simple automation •Decisional freedom •Trust likely has a weaker effect on reliance in the presence of situational factors that inhibit decisional freedom
  • 21. Human-Automation Trust vs Interpersonal Trust 21 Appearance/Anthropomorphism Ease of use Communication style Transparency/Feedback Level of control
  • 22. So What? 22 ‣ Reduction of complexity란 관점에서 자율주행차에 대한 신뢰를 볼 수 있는가? ‣ 정보를 각기 다른 상황에서 다르게 보여주는게 필요한가? Depending on the risk ‣ 자율주행차를 신뢰하게 되는 threshold 지점은 어디인가? 어떤 요소가 이러한 threshold를 만들까? ‣ 자동차는 사람의 생명과 직결되는 문제기 때문에 신뢰의 point가 더 첨예하게 나타나지 않을까?