1. A Pragmatic Approach to Defining Experiential Marketing: Hedonism Versus
Logic?
Guilherme Addor Torres Ribeiro
12356294
BA (Hons) Business & Marketing
The University of Lincoln
13th April 2015
Word Count: 11,133

2. A Pragmatic Approach to Defining Experiential Marketing: Hedonism Versus Logic?
Guilherme Addor Torres Ribeiro

3. Acknowledgements
Thank you to my mother and father, for supporting and funding my studies at The
University of Lincoln, and for unconditional love and support.
Thank you to my tutor, Peter Mount, for guidance and aid.

4. Abstract: The late 20th century saw both a period of crisis and one of emerging ideas
and methodologies in the field of marketing. This turbulence led to the creation
of a new Experiential Marketing approach; however, as this method developed
rapidly over the years, confusion arose amongst marketers as to its nature
and potential. Thus, the purpose of this paper was to clearly define modern
experiential marketing, and design a solution. The research set out to critically
analyse the literature through an inductive archival research style following
grounded theory. Via literary analysis, five research questions were
postulated, centred around the nature and origins of experience creation, the
influential factors involved within this process, and the consequential results of
successful experience creation. The final result was the creation of a holistic
conceptual model titled ‘The Experiential Control Model’. In summary, the
model allows for a better understanding of the experiential approach and its
consequences, a framework of measurement for future research, and a guide
for practical application of experiential theories. However, its greatest
weakness is perhaps its theoretical nature, thus the researcher hopes further
research will be conducted to test the validity and rigidity of the model in
practical applications.

5. Table of Contents
List of Tables, Figures and Graphs 2
Introduction 3
Problem Statement 3
Purpose of Research 4
Research Questions 5
Significance 6
Summary of Conceptual Framework 6
Literature Review 8
Background Analysis of Experiential Marketing 8
RQ1. How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli? 15
RQ2. How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli? 19
RQ3. How do external social systems impact brand experiences? 20
RQ4. What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model? 24
RQ5. How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model? 26
Proposed Conceptual Framework 27
Strengths and Limitations of the Model 28
Methodology Section 29
Introduction 29
Definition of Research 29
Definition of Paradigms 30
Ontology 31
Epistemology 33
Research Approach and Methodology 34
Axiology 38
Findings, Implications and Conclusion 40
Literary Findings in Relation to the Research Questions 40
Implications of the findings 41
Conclusions Based upon Literary Analysis 42
Recommendations for Future Research 43
Reference List 44
Bibliography 51
Appendices 66
Appendix A: Ethical Approval Form 1 66
Appendix B: Research Material 70
Appendix C: Lengthy Quotations 72

6. List of Tables, Figures and Graphs
• Figure 1: Overly simplified experiential control model, meant to visually draw a
comparison between experiential marketing and the Fishbein and Ajzen
reasoned action approach (2009).
p.16
• Figure 2: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb) and Social Norms, building off the work of
Schmitt (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen (2009).
p.19
• Figure 3: The relationship between Brand Experience and Controlled
Environmental Stimuli, Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli and Social Norms.
p.20
• Figure 4: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience and Social Norms,
based off Schmitt’s (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen's (2009) work.
p.23
• Figure 5: The relationship between Social Norms and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli, External Social Systems and Brand Experience.
p.24
• Figure 6: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb), Social Norms, and Brand Loyalty, building
off the work of Schmitt (1999), Fishbein and Ajzen (2009), and Dick and Basu
(1994).
p.24
• Figure 7: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience, Social Norms and
Brand Loyalty, based upon the work of Dick and Basu (1994).
p.25
• Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model.
p.27
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7. Introduction
Problem Statement
The late 20th century saw both a period of crisis and one of emerging ideas and
methodologies in the field of marketing. Hirschman (1981, 1982, 1983) and
Holbrook (1997) explored and debated the then current and traditional views of
consumer behaviour and marketing strategies, proposing new methods of
considering consumers, the consumption process and the marketing field in
general.
Soon, through their work and those of others (Brakus et al., 2009; Brown, 1993;
Hirschman, 1981, 1983; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook, 2000, 2001;
Klaus and Maklan, 2012; Smith, 1999) they were successful in spreading this new
experiential approach, one which saw consumers as emotional beings, as
opposed to strictly rational, logical decision makers; drawn to products by their
affective symbolisms, the product’s incorporation into the consumer’s lifestyle was
not merely a purchase, but a consumption experience.
This view however, had a few flaws - it did not account for the entire human
spectrum of psychological responses, omitting the rational side of consumer
behaviour; it implied that every consumer-organisational interaction that involved
the creation of experiences had to be extraordinary; and it also implied that
because every consumer was intrinsically unique, no one experience could be
replicated onto others.
Thus, a purely subjective experiential model implied an approach that was
unmeasurable by researchers, uncontrollable by organisations and ultimately
futile. At the same time, however, multiple authors saw the broader applications of
the experiential approach to any and every product; in truth, Addis and Holbrook
conclude a research paper by stating that the experiential approach should,
“Include the automatic teller machine. The household pet. The personal computer.
The Internet. The sun. The moon. The stars” (2001, p.64).
3

8. However, when faced with its limitations, many often simply stated that while the
experiential approach was not complete nor perfect at totally encompassing
consumer behaviour, neither was the traditional model, and therefore a
combination of the two should be used, but no effort was given as to how this
might work (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook
and Hirschman, 1982).
Purpose of Research
Therefore, the purpose of this study, is to consider the propositions of the previous
works on the experiential approach, in order to evaluate the validity of their claims.
Many authors misinterpret the potential for experiential marketing theories,
believing that their values lie within a firm’s ability to produce over-the-top
extraordinary experiences, rather than to make long-lasting emotional bonds with
consumers.
Therefore, through further and careful analysis of the literature material, it was
found that when addressing the experiential approach, it was perhaps best to
consider the Fishbein and Ajzen (2005, 2009) behavioural models; one may see a
similarity in the way in which internal subjective or objective beliefs and attitudes
can be controlled and studied logically by an organisation or researcher.
Thus, if one considers a parallel between experiential and behavioural models,
one can begin to see how initial environmental stimuli within the experiential
approach - those which influence consumers and create the experiences - draw
similarities with the initial beliefs within the reasoned action approach; hence, by
the same reasoning, the organisation or researcher, is able to influence and shape
experiences via control of the stimuli at hand.
Let it also be noted that this research follows an archival or ‘desk’ research style;
this method is characterised by analysis of secondary data, where enough
sufficient information on a subject area already exists. Hence, the purpose of this
paper is to induce a conceptual solution to the stated experiential problem.
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9. Research Questions
Allow one to consider that all environmental stimuli which are responsible for the
direct influence of the consumer’s experience, from an organisational point of view,
are either internal or external; controllable or uncontrollable. With this in mind, five
appropriate research questions were drawn up. Firstly, how are experiences
influenced by the controllable factors, what control does the organisation have
over these, and what are their consequences? This is summarised in RQ1 below:
“How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli?”
Therefore logically, the next consideration was to examine the effects of the
uncontrollable factors, how do they manifest and what are their potential
influences over experiences, summarised in RQ2 below:
“How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli?”
It was then considered that perhaps in some cases, one may have control over
influencing stimuli which are external to the organisation, such as access to and
influence over social systems. Therefore, RQ3 attempts to first understand the
relationship between social spheres and experiences, and then comprehend the
organisation’s control over them:
“How do external social systems impact brand experiences?”
Analysis of the literature led to the conclusion that brand preference creation and
purchase intention, were the only true forms of measuring a positive - or negative
in the case of their absence - brand experience. Therefore, RQ4 and RQ5 look at
the relationship between these two elements and the overall experiential model:
“What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model?”
“How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model?”
Lastly, with the findings from the five research questions, coupled with the material
within the literature analysis, this paper was able to propose an integrated
experiential approach model.
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10. Significance
The purpose of the research, as mentioned, was to better understand the
experiential approach; in doing so, this paper has constructed a holistic and
intrinsic conceptual model, which follows the experiential approach from its most
basic influencing stimuli, down to its eventual consequences on purchase
behaviour and brand loyalty. Although merely theoretical, the researcher hopes
that future investigations and applications of the model to empirical research will
show its validity and value on a practical level. If successful, one may deduce the
implications for this model to be increased knowledge of the scope of control an
organisation needs to have when designing an experiential marketing strategy.
Summary of Conceptual Framework
Following the research questions, the study began with the understanding that all
stimuli responsible for influencing a consumer’s experience - whether the smell of
a retail environment, the texture of a product, the supportiveness of staff, the social
connotations of purchasing a product, etc. - could be classified into two broad
classes: controlled environmental stimuli (ESa) and uncontrolled environmental
stimuli (ESb).
Firstly, it was considered that solely these two stimuli classifications existed.
However, it eventually became clear that social norms could be affected by brand
experiences, and therefore influenced by an organisation. This revelation
appeared when conducting inquiry for research questions two and three.
Therefore, it was concluded that in order to explain this phenomenon, there must
be three basic stimuli providers: controlled, uncontrolled, and social systems.
Thus, the creation of external social systems (Exss), resulted from the
consideration that social norms are not completely constructed by the
organisation, but they are also not outside the firm’s realm of influence. Therefore,
social spheres were neither controllable nor uncontrollable, and hence must
originated from their own basic stimuli provider. Briefly, external social systems
6

11. encapsulate all socio-cultural contexts surrounding an individual. It is responsible
for the creation of social identities and thus social influences.
The fourth research question led rise to the influential effects brand experiences
and social norms have upon brand loyalty. A mixture of positive or negative brand
experiences coupled with supporting or opposing social norms could lead to the
creation or deterioration of a consumer’s preference towards a brand. It was also
found that once this preference had been established, it too played a vital role in
the consumption of future experiences and/or the influencing affects of social
spheres.
Lastly, it was seen that these elements were also vital in inclining or deterring a
consumer’s intention to purchase; naturally, negative experiences or surrounding
norms would deter one from purchase. Whilst, multiple literary sources, attested to
the strength brand loyalty had upon shielding the consumer from these situations.
In conclusion, an overall a conceptual model was designed to encapsulate the
above findings from the research questions. ‘The Experiential Control Model’ is a
holistic and theoretical solution for visually understanding and controlling the
experiential process; it can be inspected in Appendix B, under Figure 8.
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12. Literature Review
Background Analysis of Experiential Marketing
Schmitt (1999), in his article aptly titled ‘Experiential Marketing’, builds upon the
ideas of Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), following a consensus at the time held
by marketing practitioners and academics, that ‘traditional marketing’ theories and
ideologies were to become an outdated way of viewing the “broader business
environment” (Schmitt, 1999, p.53).
‘Traditional Marketing’ can be defined as those methodologies and principles
encompassing the promotion of product features and benefits (Schmitt, 1999;
Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). This view sees consumers, products and
competition analytically and rationally, and omits the psychological and
sociological side of consumption behaviour, choosing to follow a more decision-
making approach of problem recognition, information search, evaluation, purchase
decision and post-purchase behaviour (Kotler and Keller, 2012).
Whereas the experiential method is not limited merely to some pre- or post-
purchase activity, but involves a series of actions which influence consumers’
decisions and future behaviour (Vézina, 1999, in Carù and Cova, 2003).
Essentially, experiential marketing would see a change in the way organisations
viewed and marketed towards consumers, focusing on the creation of
experiences, rather than relying on products’ features and benefits (Schmitt,
1999).
According to Schmitt (1999) this movement from a traditional to an experiential
point of view occurred due to three increasingly important environmental
developments: advancements in information technology, the importance of brands,
and the growing presence of communicational tools and entertainment.
Through the use of literature from futurists, Schmitt (1999) predicted that the future
would hold mass technological advancements, lending to faster, smaller,
8

13. integrated devices, combining television, mobile phones and computers, allowing
users to access anything at the touch of a button.
He also predicted that through these changes, brands would become increasingly
transparent and present on a global scale. This would result in the branding of all
products, even those not traditionally regarded as such. He claimed that when
features were no longer relevant, brands served to “provide and enhance
customer experiences” (Schmitt, 1999, p.54). Evidence of this may be seen today,
from Harley Davidson, Apple and Nike whose offerings are no longer motorcycles,
computer and footwear, but experiences (Penaloza, 1998).
Lastly, Schmitt argued that brands would form a new method of communication;
their logos would represent the organisation’s ideals, and as such could be
attached to anything in order to transmit an image. One of many examples of this
would be RedBull and their sponsorships. By placing their logo on selected events
and individuals they are communicating their brand’s ideals through them,
expressing that RedBull is more than a drink, it is a lifestyle.
The developments iterated by Schmitt, seem to follow the work of Pine and
Gilmore (1998), who argue that over time, services would become commoditised.
Following a “progression of economic value” commodities became products,
products grew into services, and now services were to become experiences (Pine
and Gilmore, 1998, p.2).
However, the ‘experiential’ approach is not merely stressed by Schmitt, other
authors in the marketing field have attested to this new ideology, including,
Holbrook (2000), Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), and many more. Also, this new
school of thought is not exclusive to the field of marketing, many researchers in
consumer behaviour (Addis and Holbrook, 2001; Arnould and Price, 1993; Babin
et al., 1994; Bellenger and Korgaonkar, 1980; Campbell, 2003; Hirschman, 1982;
Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook, 1997; Thompson, 1996; Thompson and
Haytko, 1997; Thompson and Hirschman, 1995), economy (Pine and Gilmore,
1998) and sociology (Miller, 1998; Ritzer, 2005; Falk and Campbell, 1997) have
9

14. substantiated the idea that creating meaningful experiences with consumers is the
next step in penetrating an excessively saturated market environment.
Holbrook, Hirschman and Campbell are a few of many who saw consumption
behaviour as hedonic experiences meant to stimulate consumers’ emotionally.
Holbrook claims, “hedonism, romanticism, and modern consumption have
converged via their common pursuit of pleasure resulting from the imaginative
evocation of emotional experience” (Holbrook, 1997, p.100).
This coincides with Brown’s view that postmodern marketing, departs from
modernism’s view of an objective, entirely rational world to a more subjective,
artistic and inherently emotional one (Brown, 1993). Therefore, according to these
authors, current consumption and marketing strategies should revolve around
stimulating consumers’ emotions and creating hedonic experiences that are
pleasureful and extraordinary.
This view however has two essential flaws - (1) it does not account for the entire
human spectrum of psychological responses, omitting the rational side of
consumer behaviour, and (2) it implies that every experience must be
extraordinary.
Firstly, the above view contradicts Schmitt’s definition of ‘experiential marketing’ in
which he explicitly states that consumers are both emotional and rational beings.
He understands that while consumption behaviour may at times be hedonic in
nature, consumers are also enticed by intellectual intrigue, problem-solving, and
logically-driven intentions (Schmitt, 1999).
Secondly, the purpose of providing consumers with experiences is to create a
brand with which consumers “can relate to” and a product “that they can
incorporate into their lifestyles” (Schmitt, 1999, p.57), the end-goal of which (from
an organisational perspective) is to increase purchase intention and brand
preference.
10

15. Therefore, perhaps originally, experiences needed to be extraordinary to remove
consumers from everyday monotony. However, this does not always ring true;
positive experiences can also be mundane in nature (such as a quiet and peaceful
experience to break from life’s constant routine) and hence do not need to be
extraordinary, surprising or over-the-top.
Authors Carù and Cova (2003) write a critique of the ‘experiential’ approach, and
attempt to show that it will lead to an over-saturation of experiences and
decreased contemplative time. They begin their argument by postulating that just
as relationship marketing deteriorated the definition of relationships, experiential
marketing will do the same to experiences (see Appendix C, Quote 1).
Hetzel believed that the concept of experience was marketing’s escape from the
limitations of relationship-based marketing ideas (Hetzel, 2002 cited within Carù
and Cova, 2003); in effect, customer relationship management (CRM) lent a false
appreciation of the customer.
As argued by some authors, such as Blois (1997, cited within Carù and Cova,
2003), this led to the misassumption that all customer-to-business relationships -
whether intense or irrelevant - were special, and thus debased the definition of
relationships. Carù and Cova (2003) build upon this view, and propose the same
will occur with experiential marketing; the over-saturation of extraordinary
experiences will lend to the corruption of experiences themselves.
They believe that experiential marketing’s roots lie in North American thinking and
culture, creating an “obsession with extraordinary experience” (Carù and Cova,
2003, p. 9) and hence choose the use of an euro-centric perspective to
deconstruct this way of thinking.
French author Bruckner believes that the marketing of experiences constitutes as
a “search for perpetual euphoria” creating an ideology within our society of
“continual entertainment” in which there is an “obligation to be happy” (Bruckner,
2000 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).
11

16. Bruckner even goes as far as to state that this “forces everything to be assessed
in terms of pleasure and displeasure […] which leaves those who do not agree in
shame and discomfort” (Bruckner, 2000, p.17 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).
Cassano, an Italian author, agrees with these statements, believing that this
obsession with the extraordinary will lead to a life of constant exaltation, in which
consumers will fear boredom and empty time, craving more “astonishing
experiences” (Carù and Cova, 2003, p.9).
Building upon the foundations of another Italian, Manzini, Carù and Cova argue
that experiential marketing is leading to the disappearance of contemplative time.
Manzini defines this as a period in which one does nothing, but “is not empty nor
meaningless” (Manzini, 2001 within Carù and Cova, 2003, p.10); therefore,
contemplative time symbolises an introspective and meditational period during
one’s day.
Manzini (2001) accredits this disappearance to two issues, the saturation of free
time (the need to fill every waking moment with activities from fear of not doing so)
and an accelerated pace of life (the need to perform everything quickly, in order to
free up time for further activities).
Thus, Carù and Cova conclude that “experiential marketing could lead to a
degraded context of life” by bringing upon a “negative auto-reinforcing cycle” in
which consumers crave experiential products and services, which lead to less
contemplative time, lending to a degraded life context, which spurs further wanting
for the consumption of experiences (Manzini, 2001, within Carù and Cova, 2003,
p.11).
However, this view once again overlooks the notion that experiences can be
mundane in nature and must not always be extraordinary. The authors misinterpret
experiential marketing theories, believing that their values lie within a firm’s ability
to produce over-the-top experiences, rather than memorable ones which create
long-lasting emotional bonds.
12

17. Indeed, Hirschman and Holbrook’s work on experiential consumption was built
upon their original theories of hedonic consumption, characterised as “those facets
of consumer behaviour that relate to the multi-sensory, fantasy and emotive
aspects of one’s experience with products” (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982, p.92).
This definition might lead one to believe that every experience thus needs to be
extraordinary in order to be memorable (Pine and Gilmore, 1998).
However, the authors simply intended for this definition to clearly identify the
differences between the then current school of thought in consumer behaviour and
the new ‘experiential’ approach. This can be clearly seen in a later article by
Holbrook and Hirschman, in which they explain experiential consumption as a
diverging theory from “the information processing model” (Holbrook and
Hirschman, 1982, p.132). They define this model as one which considers the
consumer as a logical problem-solver who rationally makes purchase decisions,
baring similarities to Schmitt’s definition of ‘traditional marketing’.
Claiming stark differences between the two methodologies, Holbrook and
Hirschman include a figure which attempts to illustrate the key characteristics of
both views, such as “tangible benefits versus symbolic benefits”, “problem-solving
versus hedonic responses”, “attitudes versus emotions”, “preferences versus
feelings”, or “left-brain versus right-brain” (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982, p.133).
Again, the authors allude to the view that experiential and traditional marketing are
incompatible. However, the article concludes with the belief that, the point is not to
usurp the traditional view, but to supplement and enrich existing theories with a
mixture of both, although no further explanations are provided (Holbrook and
Hirschman, 1982).
Hirschman (1983) in particular, questions the validity of the traditional marketing
concept, in quantifying artistic and ideological products. Hirschman postulated that
the traditional model, excluded two broad classes of producers: artists and
ideologists (Hirschman, 1983).
13

18. She claimed that these producers, could and do create for their own personal
exaltation, or the judgement of their peers, rather than for public needs; therefore,
Hirschman developed four proposals aimed at marketing researchers when
evaluating public opinion of an artwork or ideological piece (Hirschman, 1983).
In short these were: (1) consumers must evaluate the object first-hand; responses
to a representation of the object - such as a photograph - should not be seen as
equal to that of the actual stimuli. (2) consumers’ responses should not have to
follow a logical path or justification; affective responses should not follow logical
assumptions, because they are subjective in nature. (3) Verbal communication of
consumers’ responses may be limited, and as such, recognised by the researcher.
Lastly, (4) no response can be objectively seen as ‘better’ or ‘worse’ than another
(Hirschman, 1983, p.53).
The implications for these proposals can see reflective effects on experiential
marketing due to the similar way in which each experience is intrinsically unique to
the individual, and thus assessed subjectively.
Thus, following Hirschman’s proposals, firstly, an experience must be lived first-
hand; an account of said experience - even by relevant others - will not necessarily
equate to the consumer’s own response, even though the opinions of reference
groups can influence and affect the individual.
Secondly, as the experience is subjective, responses do not need to be rationally
justified by the consumer. Often times, one will enjoy an experience and be aware
of the fact, but not be able to explain why logically. This relates to Schmitt’s SEMs
(1999), where more explicit systems (THINK, SENSE and ACT) will be better
understood by consumers, over intrinsic systems like FEEL or RELATE.
Schmitt (1999) explains that marketers construct experiences through the use of
what he refers to as “Strategic Experiential Modules” or SEMs (Schmitt, 1999, p.
60). These SEMs refer to the different degrees with which experiences can be
created and delivered to consumers; these include “sensory experiences
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19. (SENSE), affective experiences (FEEL), creative cognitive experiences (THINK),
physical experiences, behaviours and lifestyles (ACT), and social-identity
experiences that result from relating to a reference group or culture
(RELATE)” (Schmitt, 1999, p.60); these will be further developed within the
research questions.
Continuing with Hirschman’s proposals, the third states that consumers may find
difficulty in expressing their experiences verbally or coherently; thus heavy
reliance on verbal feedback or standardised response forms can be ineffective.
Logically, if a consumer enjoyed an experience, they would purchase the product,
or wish to undergo the experience again; therefore, a tangible measurement of
consumers’ responses is through purchase behaviour or the creation of brand
preference.
Lastly, due to the subjective nature of responses, no experience can be measured
against another; comparisons between consumers’ responses are unpredictable
and may lead to inaccurate results. It is more effective to attempt to understand
the significance of the stimuli which created the experience. This way correlations
can be established between stimuli and experiences - cause and effect - allowing
for the direction of experiences through control of the stimuli.
Although it may seem that the implications of the above statements lead one to
believe that the subjective nature of experiential marketing makes it nearly
unquantifiable, perhaps behavioural change theories may provide some evidence
towards the contrary.
RQ1. How are brand experiences influenced by controllable stimuli?
Fishbein and Ajzen’s theories, all attempt to understand, predict and alter the
intensity of internal and external influences on consumer behaviour. Central to
them, is the belief that performing a given behaviour (such as purchasing a
product) is directly influenced by the intention to do so (Ajzen, 2005; Fishbein and
Ajzen, 2009).
15

20. Within their latest Reasoned Action Approach, it is proposed that behavioural
intention is influenced by three factors - the consumer’s attitude towards the
behaviour, the perceived norms surrounding performing the behaviour, and their
perceived control over performing the behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009). The
development of these constructs is a direct result of the consumer’s beliefs of each
corresponding aspect - attitude, norms and control (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009).
Thus, the authors have been able to prove that by tracing one’s initial beliefs, the
researcher can direct an individual’s behaviour, through careful selection and
manipulation of their intentions (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009; see Appendix C, Quote
2 for further details).
Therefore, if one considers the initial beliefs within the reasoned action approach
to equate the initial environmental stimuli within the experiential approach, then by
the same reasoning, one may consider that by influencing these stimuli, an
organisation is able to direct the consumer’s experience [see Figure 1].
Figure 1: Overly simplified experiential control model, meant to visually draw
a comparison between experiential marketing and the Fishbein and Ajzen
reasoned action approach (2009).
Beliefs
Attitudes
Norms
Control
Intentions Behaviour
Stimuli
Cognitive
Affective
Experience Intention Behaviour
16

21. The basis for this assumption, is that the initial stimuli responsible for experiences
are controlled by the organisation. These controllable stimuli, draw comparisons to
Schmitt’s SEMs; as briefly mentioned earlier, these strategic experiential modules
consist of five subgroups, SENSE, FEEL, THINK, ACT and RELATE.
SENSE techniques include “sight, sound, touch, taste and smell” and can be used
for a variety of desired effects, such as product differentiation, added value, and
increasing consumer trial or purchase motivation (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).
Anggie and Haryanto (2011) iterate the importance of these techniques, by
analysis the presence of olfactory cues within a retail context. They define
olfactory as “the presence of scent in a store environment” (Lindstorm, 2005 in
Anggie and Haryanto, 2011, p88).
Using research from multiple sources (Baron and Bronfen, 1994; Bone and
Jantrania, 1992; Lindstorm, 2005; Mitchell et al., 1995; Spangenberg et al., 2006;
Sullivan and Adcock, 2002) the authors establish a connection between aromas
and the nervous system of the brain, and its effect on memory recall, social
behaviour and time spent within a store.
They argue that the aroma must mimic or compliment the shopping environment,
as to say, an inappropriate scent will negatively affect consumer retention,
establishing olfactory stimuli as an important factor in customer approach
behaviour.
Research from Mehrabian and Russel (1974), quoted within Sullivan and Adcock
(2002 within Anggie and Haryanto, 2011) show that characteristics of approach
behaviour include the desire to remain in the environment, increased participation
and increased purchase intention, with avoidance behaviour displaying opposite
characteristics.
As such, this research serves to illustrate the capacity and potential with which
controllable environmental stimuli can have upon the consumer’s experience.
17

22. FEEL techniques refer to consumers’ affective responses; as Schmitt describes,
the range of these may vary from “mildly positive” to “strong emotions of joy and
pride” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61). The effectiveness of these techniques are highly
dependant on an understanding of which stimuli can trigger specific emotional
responses, and the “willingness of the consumer to engage in perspective-taking
and empathy” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).
Colombo concludes that empathy and caring is the “the source of both feeling
emotions and complying with [social] norms” (Colombo, 2014, p.45). The
relevance of this, is the notion that campaigns utilising FEEL characteristics often
fall short when implemented on a global scale, “because both the emotion-
inducing stimuli and the willingness to empathise in a given situation often differ
from culture to culture” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61), demonstrating the fragility of proper
implementation.
THINK systems are designed to appeal to intellect, creating interest by engaging
consumers’ creatively and through problem solving, and enabling “convergent and
divergent thinking” via “surprise, intrigue and provocation” (Schmitt, 1999, p.61).
Convergent thinking is defined as “the mode of human cognition that strives for the
deductive generation of a single, concrete, accurate, and effective solution” whilst
divergent thinking refers to “imagination, provocation, unstructured syntheses,
serendipitous discovery, and answers that break with conformity” (Müller-
Wienbergen et al., 2011, p.3). Therefore, THINK techniques appeal to both the
rational and creative aspects of consumers.
ACT systems target lifestyles, seeking to enrich consumers’ lives; they attempt to
open consumers to “alternative ways of doing things” as well as “alternative
lifestyles and interactions” usually through the use of inspiring and motivational
stimuli - often a person or group the consumer regards highly (Schmitt, 1999, p.
62).
18

23. Lastly, RELATE systems refer to aspects of all previous SEMs, but expand further
into the external social environment. RELATE techniques are often characterised
by self-improvement, self-achievement, social praise or acceptance, subculture
acceptance, patriotism, and so on (Schmitt, 1999); because of this, RELATE
systems often play off of consumers’ surrounding social norms, targeting them
from a personal and communal perspective.
Therefore, Schmitt’s SEMs show how consumers’ experiences can be created and
affected by surrounding environmental stimuli, displaying the large sphere of
control an organisation needs to have when developing and implementing
experiential marketing techniques.
RQ2. How are brand experiences influenced by uncontrollable stimuli?
However, not all experiential stimuli may be controlled by the organisation. Some
situational factors can, therefore, be categorised as externally controlled stimuli,
such as those of competing organisations, or of the larger environmental context.
Thus, from an organisational perspective, environmental stimuli are either
controllable (ESa) or uncontrollable (ESb) [see Figure 2].
Controlled Environmental Stimuli (ESa), are those techniques, strategies, systems
and other influencing factors which are developed, implemented and maintained
ES
ES
Brand
Experience
Social
Norms
Purchase
Intent
Figure 2: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb) and Social Norms, building off the work
of Schmitt (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen (2009).
19

24. by the organisation. Any and all of Schmitt’s SEMs fall under this category, as they
exist to achieve strategic marketing goals (Schmitt, 1999).
Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESb), mimic those of ESa however by
definition are outside the control of the organisation. An ESb can originate from the
environment or from competitors, as a reaction to the organisation’s own
strategies. However, by definition, an ESb does not need to be negative in nature
nor conflicting with the organisation’s actions, simply outside their realm of control.
As such, uncontrollable stimuli may have a direct role in disturbing - or perhaps
augmenting - the brand experience; however they are more prominent when
influencing social norms as can be seen in Figure 2. Social norms are further
explored within the third research question, nonetheless, allow Figure 3 below to
summarise the relationship between brand experience and its influencing factors
insofar.
RQ3. How do external social systems impact brand experiences?
Normative beliefs or social norms can influence consumers’ experiences either as
they occur, or via pre-constructed biases. As mentioned, ACT systems affect
consumers’ lifestyles through the use of referent groups; they may be personal or
aspirational in nature, but their beliefs and actions play an important role in
Figure 3: The relationship between Brand Experience and Controlled
Environmental Stimuli, Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli and Social Norms.
20

25. experience creation (Schmitt, 1999). Similarly, RELATE systems use consumers’
self- and/or communal image to influence experiences; as such these tend to be
more intimate in nature (Schmitt, 1999).
Göckeritz et al. (2014) found that young children (five years old) are able to both
understand normative behaviour, but also develop their own social norms
spontaneously. When playing a game where success could only be achieved
through the use of interdependent coordination, it was found that the children were
“capable of creating their own sets of social norms to align their behaviour
effectively, even when there was no authority who prescribed how they ought to
behave or judged their actions” (Göckeritz et al., 2014, p.91).
This research serves to show not only the power of normative behaviour within a
social group, but also the pervasiveness of norms as a social tool amongst
humans, irregardless of age; more importantly, it shows how social norms play a
role in the development of one’s position within a community.
Another journal article, by Higgs (2015), shows the prevalence of social norms on
individuals and their eating behaviours. Defining social norms as “implicit codes of
conduct that provide a guide to appropriate action”, Higgs argues that social norms
impact eating behaviours through the form of “perceived standards for what
constitutes appropriate consumption, whether that be amounts of foods or specific
food choices, for members of a social group” (Higgs, 2015, p.38-9).
Therefore, whereas Göckeritz et al. show the importance of social norms within a
community perspective (RELATE), Higgs’ paper stands to show the role of social
norms on an individual’s own behaviour and self-image (ACT).
Both of these behaviours can be seen as involving injunctive and descriptive
norms (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009). Injunctive norms are one’s own perceptions
about how referent others will judge them for performing or not performing a
behaviour (see Appendix C, Quote 3). Descriptive norms follow one’s intention to
21

26. perform a behaviour based upon the actions of others, as an attempt to become
closer through modelling their deeds (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009).
Therefore, an individual seeking to undergo an experience because they believe
referent others would approve of this are following injunctive norms; whereas if the
individual felt compelled to do so in order to conform, they would be following
descriptive norms.
Hence, when social norms influence a consumers’ brand experience, they may
either conflict or complement the stimuli present.
In the case of dissonance, this may yield unforeseen responses to the brand,
ultimately affecting the experience negatively. Dick and Basu (1994), with the
support of other authors (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Ehrlich, 1969; Wicker, 1969),
confirm this by statin that fear of disapproval from referent groups and social
acceptance is stronger than brand necessity.
In the case of consonance, this alignment serves to strengthen the consumers’
response and thus experience. This can be seen in Ajzen and Fishbein’s reasoned
action approach, where if attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural
control were congruent with one another, they would have a positive effect on
behavioural intention (Ajzen, 2005).
However, this is dependant upon the strength of the social norms present and the
consumer’s attitude towards the brand. Therefore, one may consider six
possibilities between the relationship of brand experiences and social norms.
Three scenarios consider that the consumer’s brand experience was positive; in
the case of +BE > -SN, the consumer’s attitude has overruled the social context,
leading to purchase intent. If, a +BE < -SN, the need to conform was greater than
the brand’s offering, therefore, the consumer will have a lowered purchase intent.
Thirdly, if +BE = +SN, then the brand’s offering compliments social conformity,
lending to high levels of purchase intent.
22

27. Adversely, three scenarios consider the consumer’s experience to be negative;
therefore when -BE > +SN, the negative experience outweighs the need to
conform, and there is no purchase intent. If -BE < +SN, although the purchase
intent is low, the consumer still feels the need to conform. Lastly, when -BE = -SN,
there is absolutely no purchase intent, and it is unlikely the consumer will return.
Insofar, it has been established that all elements of the model originate and
proceed from two basic stimuli providers - Controlled Environmental Stimuli (ESa)
and Uncontrolled Environmental Stimuli (ESb).
However, within social groups where the majority of constituents approve of the
brand’s experiences, the minority will be subject to social pressures. In this
scenario, from an organisations perspective, brand experiences are influencing
social norms; therefore, one may consider that brand experience and social norms
share a cyclical relationship [see Figure 4].
As such, if brand experiences are created by the organisation, and these affect
social norms, it would be erroneous to believe social norms are entirely composed
of uncontrolled external stimuli. Therefore, the paper proposes a new basic
stimulus provider, external social systems (Exss). These include all socio-cultural
contexts, such as culture, nationality, reference groups, friends, families, sub-
cultures, etc. They lead to the creation of social identities amongst its constituents.
A recent Harvard Business Review article states the importance of social identities
within a marketing context (Champniss et al., 2015, see Appendix C, Quote 4),
thus solidifying the importance of Exss within the experiential approach.
Figure 4: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience and Social Norms,
based off Schmitt’s (1999) and Fishbein and Ajzen's (2009) work.
23

28. Thus, incorporating external social systems into the influential factors of social
norms allows for the creation of Figure 5.
RQ4. What is the role of brand loyalty within the experiential model?
Dick and Basu (1994) developed a conceptual framework for customer loyalty,
attempting to understand its antecedents and consequences within a business
environment. They argue that social norms alongside attitudes and situational
factors can directly affect repeat purchases, or brand loyalty (Dick and Basu, 1994,
see Appendix C, Quote 5 for further details). Considering situational factors as ESa
and ESb, model from Figure 2 may be expanded to include Brand Loyalty [see
Figure 6].
Figure 5: The relationship between Social Norms and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli, External Social Systems and Brand Experience.
ES
ES
Brand
Experience
Social
Norms
Brand
Loyalty
Purchase
Intent
Figure 6: Experiential Control Model including Controlled and Uncontrolled
Environmental Stimuli (ESa and ESb), Social Norms, and Brand Loyalty, building
off the work of Schmitt (1999), Fishbein and Ajzen (2009), and Dick and Basu
(1994).
24

29. Dick and Basu (1994) state social norms’ affect upon brand loyalty is inversely
proportional to attitude strength. Once established, brand loyalty shields the
consumer from future negative experiences, social norms and competition, stating
consumers will not accept alternatives, and will even choose to wait or go out of
their way to purchase their desired brand (Dick and Basu, 1994).
The authors explain that multiple systems work together in constructing resistance
towards counter-persuasion; these include “attitude-driven message selectivity
(Fazio, 1990), biased cognitive responses (Cacioppo and Petty, 1985), cognitive
consistency (Frey, 1986), and self-persuasion (Tesser and Conlee, 1975)” (Dick
and Basu, 1994, p.107).
As brand loyalty strengthens over time, the associated risks from trial of new
brands leads to a reduction of search motivation among consumers for
alternatives, as such, “a number of studies provide evidence that as experience,
learning, satisfaction, and repeat purchase increase, search for information about
alternative brands decreases” (Dick and Basu, 1994, p.107).
Thus, brand experience, social norms and loyalty share a cyclical relationship; the
first two elements allow for the creation of strong attitudes, resulting in preference,
whilst loyalty shields and further solidifies the consumers relationship with
experiences and social norms [see Figure 7].
Figure 7: The cyclical relationship between Brand Experience, Social Norms
and Brand Loyalty, based upon the work of Dick and Basu (1994).
25

30. RQ5. How is purchase intention affected by the experiential model?
Dick and Basu (1994) defined brand loyalty through “proportion of purchase
(Cunningham, 1966), purchase sequence (Kahn, Kalwani and Morrison, 1986) and
probability of purchase (Massey, Montgomery, and Morrison, 1970)” (Dick and
Basu, 1994, p.100). Therefore, one may take purchase behaviour - whether
repeat, intent or quantity - as a consequence of existing brand loyalty.
This correlates with a study by Brakus et al. (2009), in which the authors propose
that brand loyalty as a determinant of consumer behaviour, has resulting effects on
purchase intention, repeat purchases, brand recommendation and negation to
brand-switching. Their findings also concluded that “brand experience has a
behavioural impact; it affects consumer satisfaction and loyalty directly and
indirectly through brand personality” (Brakus et al., 2009, p.65).
Therefore, not merely brand loyalty, but also brand experience has influential
effects upon purchase intent.
Similarly, Anggie and Haryanto’s (2011) results indicated that the effective brand
experience creation could not only lead to loyalty creation, but could also increase
purchase intent and purchase quantity, especially upon customers’ with existing
positive attitudes, writing “the smell of bread makes me want to buy bread” and
“the smell of bread makes me buy more”, with the latter scoring higher in their
analysis (Anggie and Haryanto, 2011, p.93). Furthermore, they found that the
participation/recommendation of referent others during the experience, further
strengthened enjoyment and purchase intent (Anggie and Haryanto, 2011).
Also, multiple authors support the stance that positive brand experiences,
congruent social norms and brand loyalty serve to increase purchase intent
(Anggie and Haryanto, 2011; Brakus et al., 2009; Chou, 2009; Dick and Basu,
1994; Schmitt, 1999; Shah et al., 2011; Srinivasan and Srivastava, 2010).
26

31. Proposed Conceptual Framework
Insofar, this paper has elaborated upon the existence of certain factors whose
interconnected relationships have influencing affects upon each other. From an
organisational perspective, one is able to trace the initial stimuli necessary and
responsible for the creation of consumer-brand experiences, and follow their
resounding effects until physical manifestation as purchase behaviour or brand
loyalty. In essence, this paper has attempted to unify experiential marketing
theories and consumer behaviour theories, in order to create a holistic conceptual
framework, which this paper has alluded to as the Experiential Control Model [see
Figure 8].
Figure 8: The Experiential Control Model.
27

32. Strengths and Limitations of the Model
The greatest strength of the Experiential Control Model, is perhaps its flexibility in
practical adoption to any organisation or situation. It was designed specifically for
this purpose, hence while the elements of the framework consider the different
influencing factors, they still remain broad categories; this way a marketer or
researcher applying the model is able to define their own specific case issues in
accordance to their scenario. Yet at the same time, a range of possible element
configurations is explored within this research.
The limitations of the model are very clear to the researcher; because it was
conceived under theoretical implications, it lacks empirical evidence to justify its
effectiveness on a practical level. Also, even though the model allows for a clearer
understanding of the involved elements, it lacks a structure for the individual
analysis of each specific factor, therefore, it becomes the job of future researchers
to create and implement their own research strategies that conform to the model,
rather than being prescribed them by the framework. Further limitations could be
that the theoretical basis for the model is inaccurate; when studying the literature,
a select pool of authors and disciplines were chosen, however, perhaps a greater
consideration of literary sources may have honed or contradicted the model. This
limitation occurred due to both the time constraints upon the study and the
availability of research material.
Therefore, it is hoped that future research will seek a wider range of theories
surrounding the framework and practical applications of the model. In summary,
the model allows for a better understanding of the experiential approach and its
consequences, a framework of measurement for future research, and a guide for
practical application of experiential theories. It allows for ease when designing
experiential marketing strategies by organisations, as the factors involved in
achieving specific strategic goals, as well as their relations to other elements, are
displayed clearly.
28

33. Methodology Section
Introduction
As this report has shown, consumption behaviour and the role of marketing in
addressing this, tends to have differing view points, definitions, and focal areas of
importance amongst researchers and authors of the field. For example, Hirschman
and Holbrook in 1982, considered a new hedonic approach to marketing in order
to cross-examine and complement traditional views; later that same year, Holbrook
and Hirschman (1982) described a similar, but not quite identical view point on
experiential and conventional marketing; Hirschman, a year later in 1983, building
upon her previous work, considers new implications for the experiential approach,
although from different perspectives of her original standpoint; Schmitt (1999),
building upon the work of his antecedents, describes a newer experiential
marketing concept, and even more recently, Holbrook (2001) proposed a novel
outlook, tracing marketing’s transition from hedonic to experiential.
The purpose of these examples is to illustrate how multiple perspectives can exist
on comparable areas of study, and how these different attitudes and angles can be
subject to change even for the same individual. This is the same for research
paradigms, philosophies, methods and conclusions. Matters of ontology and
epistemology are reflective of not only the undertaken research at hand, but also
the individual. Hence it is important for one to understand, carefully consider and
clearly state one’s viewpoints on ontology and epistemology, and the resounding
consequences these have upon undergoing research.
Definition of Research
Although multiple definitions exist, Kerlinger (1970, cited within Cohen and
Manion, 1994, p.4) defines it as, “the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena”. Smith, (1981 within Gliner et al., 2009) describes a similar
definition, but in greater detail (see Appendix C, Quote 6).
29

34. Definition of Paradigms
Lincoln and Guba (1985) working upon the creations of author Julienne Ford
(1975) believe that all things must follow “metaphysical beliefs” which are “the
ultimate benchmarks against which everything else is tested” (Lincoln and Guba,
1985, p.14-15).
Further, they quote Patton who defines a paradigm as “a world view, a general
perspective, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world” (1978, p.203
quoted within Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p.15).
Easterby-Smith et al. define paradigms from Kuhn’s (1962) descriptions, as “the
combination of new theories and questions […]” (2012, p.22-3).
Saunders et al. define a paradigm as “a way of examining social phenomena from
which particular understandings of these phenomena can be gained and
explanations attempted” (2009, p.118).
Therefore, from a research perspective, one’s paradigm, or world view, defines
their research philosophy and research approach (Saunders et al., 2009). This
research philosophy is in turn defined by the type of study the researcher wishes
to carry out, and what the individual deems as important, valuable and useful.
Hence, the philosophy one adapts, will have practical implications upon the
individual’s research strategies, methods, and evaluation of their findings (see
Appendix C, Quote 7). Thus, the authors conclude that the significance of
research philosophies is not how well one adheres to a paradigm, but how well
one defends their choice in relation to alternative choices (Saunders et al., 2009).
30

35. Ontology
Ontology is generally considered to be a philosophical view point concerned with
the nature of reality (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009). However,
within the realm of social sciences, one finds that the definitions of ontological
philosophies differ slightly amongst authors in the field.
Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) describe the ontological philosophy of relativism, as
one which considers truth a relative concept to the researcher; as such, what are
considered facts within a subject matter are merely general agreements amongst
peers and professionals. Therefore, one may consider that from a relativist’s point
of view, there are multiple perspectives to be studied. The purpose of the
researcher, is to attempt to immerse themselves and understand all possible
viewpoints surrounding the study matter, with no one angle being construed as
more important than another (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012).
This paper has observed various definitions of experiential marketing. Although
many share similarities, each author adds their own personal contribution to the
field. It is also apparent that over time, authors revise their own claims and
perspectives; this shares similarities with a quote from the relativist Collins (1983,
p.88 within Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.20), which states “what counts for the
truth can vary from place to place and from time to time”. As such, in this study’s
attempt to better understand and define experiential marketing, it has adopted a
relativist ontological approach.
Saunders et al. (2009) believes in the ontological view of subjectivism; this
considers that the researcher and social reality are intertwined, therefore the
observer’s perceptions and actions influence and create the social reality around
them (Saunders et al., 2009).
As mentioned, subjectivism places the observer as both the influence and the
consequence of social reality, and as such, the two “are in a constant state of
revision” (Saunders et al., 2009, p.111). As Remenyi et al. (1998) state, the
31

36. purpose of the researcher who follows a subjectivist ontology, is to understand not
just the reality but the processes behind its creation (Saunders et al., 2009).
Subjectivism is also often associated with social constructionism, central to which
is the idea that the social world surrounding the researcher is dynamic, existing as
interactions between its constituents, with actions having multiple influences and
consequences (Saunders et al., 2009). As such, it is the individual’s duty when
performing research, to position themselves within this social structure, and
attempt to understand the reality from within. Saunders et al. describe this as “to
enter the social world of our research subjects and understand their world from
their point of view” (2009, p.116).
As such, Bryman and Bell (2007) in their definition of constructionism state that
social reality is in constant interaction with its participants, and that its meaning is
thus in constant change as social actors interplay with one another. Therefore,
reality is in constant motion, making it impossible to label with a definitive
description. As such, each researcher’s analysis of the social world is inherently
different from another’s, including one’s own past. This definition not only implies
that reality is subjective, but also that one’s version of such is neither greater nor
lesser than another’s (Bryman and Bell, 2007).
Once again, one may notice similarities between the nature of this ontology and
the studies within this paper. Many authors claim that experiential marketing is a
new method which addressed flaws in the traditional marketing approach, and is to
be used concurrently with the older methods; but perhaps, just as constructionism
implies, traditional marketing theories were suited for the social reality of their time
- as suggested by Smith (1999), who claimed these ideologies were a result of the
industrial revolution - and as such, advocates of the experiential approach were
simply identifying and adapting to a newer social context. Thus, one may logically
consider that since the proposition of the experiential approach, perhaps
marketing is in need of a more cohesive model consistent with the current social
world, hence validating the existence of this and future research on the matter.
32

37. Epistemology
Epistemological philosophies are concerned with what assumptions and
knowledge should be considered acceptable in a given field (Bryman and Bell,
2007; Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009).
The epistemological philosophy Easterby-Smith et al. consider as social
constructionism, shares similarities (if not identical) to the definitions previously
mentioned. This epistemology views social reality not as an external and objective
construction but as an internally subjective construction, whose meaning is given
by those who experience it (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). As earlier, the observer
or researcher should “appreciate the different constructions and meanings that
people place upon their experience” (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.23-4). Most
importantly, reality is created by the interaction of individuals in different situations.
Therefore, allow oneself to contemplate Easterby-Smith et al.’s listing of eight
characteristics of social constructionism:
• The observer is part of what is being observed
• Human interests are the main drivers of science
• Explanations aim to increase general understanding of the situation
• Research progresses through gathering rich data from which ideas are
induced
• Concepts should incorporate stakeholder perspectives
• Units of analysis may include the complexity of ‘whole’ situations
• Generalisation through theoretical abstraction
• Sampling requires small numbers of cases chosen for specific reasons
(taken from table 2.4 within Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.24).
Important features from the above list include the involvement of the researcher
within the study, the use of affective response as a valid measurement, inducing
theory from collected data, the abstract nature of theories, and focused sampling.
33

38. These all share similarities with this research paper, such as the use of focused
secondary research, induction of ideas from existing theories, and the abstract
nature of the argument presented. Bryman and Bell (2007) and Saunders et al.
(2009) refer to this same epistemological position as interpretivism. Both authors
place importance upon the researcher’s ability to “grasp the subjective meaning of
social action” (Bryman and Bell, 2007, p.19) and “adopt an empathetic
stance” (Saunders et al., 2009, p.116).
Research Approach and Methodology
As previously mentioned, one of the aspects of the research method of this paper,
and its ontological and epistemological standpoints, is the use of induction, rather
than deduction.
Induction, involves the creation of hypotheses from collected data. Firstly, the
researcher sets out to study the subject material or collect data; then through
careful evaluation, one creates a hypothesis from their findings. As Saunders et al.
put it, “theory would follow data rather than vice versa with deduction” (2009, p.
126). Inductive approaches are often associated with the social sciences, because
they allow for an understanding of human interpretation and interaction, before
their effects can be made hypothesised (Saunders et al., 2009). Also, because it is
less rigid than deductive methodologies, it allows for the evaluation of alternative
possibilities (Saunders et al., 2009). However, within the inductive approach, after
hypothesis consideration has been carried out, the researcher may wish to deduce
a situation in which this solution might or might not work, and acquire data upon
this; as the authors suggest, this approach is common within grounded theory
(Bryman and Bell, 2007).
Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) describe grounded theory as a “comparative method”
which examines the same research phenomena under differing circumstances.
This may lead to two separate theory types: substantive - which involves the
evaluation of data to form a pattern to identify similarities - and formal - which
delves further into the findings to produce added hypotheses and consequences to
34

39. the initial causalities (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012, p.58). Glaser and Strauss
(1967) developed the method, and as such defined two criteria for measuring the
quality of one’s theory; firstly, the theory must be grounded upon sufficient analysis
in order to allow for generalisations, it must be “analytic”. Secondly, the theory
must be relatable to others - whether practitioners or researchers - and must
therefore be “sensitising” (Easterby-Smith, 2012, p.58).
Therefore, this paper applied an inductive approach to the secondary data of
established experts in the field; following grounded theory it aimed to examine and
determine correlations between differing authors and viewpoints and thus induced
a hypothesis for the possibility of a new pragmatic approach to experiential
marketing theories. The ontological philosophy of this paper is one of relativism as
ascribed by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012), subjectivism as described by Saunders
et al. (2009) or social constructionism (Bryman and Bell, 2007). The
epistemological approach is one of social constructionism (Easterby-Smith et al.,
2012) and interpretivism (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Saunders et al., 2009).
The research approach undertaken by this paper, and most appropriate for its
philosophical views, is that of archival research. This type or research method is
appropriate for those researching an area where sufficient data has already been
previously gathered, thus, the focus is not on the retrieval of data, but the analysis
of textual information (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Saunders et al., 2009). The key
to this method is the analysis of trends within bodies of texts in order to illustrate
causes behind these patterns. A key point made by Saunders et al. towards
archival research is that this strategy “allows research questions which focus upon
the past and changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or
explanatory” (2009, p.150).
Hence, if one were to simulate such an inquiry into the bodies of text compiled as
the literature of this paper, one is able to see similar trends occurring. Firstly,
thirteen of the most relevant sources were chosen from several authors. Next,
eighteen of the most common terminologies were chosen to be measured across
the literature; these included common words used when describing experiential
35

40. marketing, such as ‘experience/experiential’, ‘emotive/emotions’, ‘feel/feelings’,
‘hedonic/hedonism’, ‘affect/affective’, ‘fun’, ‘fantasy’, ‘subjective’, ‘aesthetic’ and
‘multisensory’. Simultaneously, words related to traditional marketing were also
chosen, such as ‘traditional’, ‘cognitive/cognition’, ‘functional’, ‘utilitarian/utility’,
‘benefits’, ‘objective’, and ‘logic/logical’. Lastly, a neutral word, ‘consumption’ was
chosen as well. Titles and abstract sections were not counted, as they do not
incorporate the main body of text, however, subtitles were counted. Graphs, tables
and figures were only counted if they were seen as having pivotal information to
the research.
Each body of text was arranged chronologically, then by author surname, and was
measured for the terminologies; in total, the literature spanned from 1981 till 2009.
Once the results were counted, in order to narrow the number of journals and
increase the accuracy of results, the sum of each individual paper was calculated,
and those whose sum did not equate to or show greater than one hundred
relevant words, were discarded; it was logically deduced that if a journal did not
account for large quantities of the terminology used, then it was considered less
relevant to the study area compared to other papers. The result were nine
resulting literary texts, ranging from 1982 till 2009; this correlates with the
information within this paper’s literature review, which examined the origins of the
experiential approach around 1982.
Next, the sum for each individual terminology was calculated for these nine bodies
of text, and the terminologies were hence organised in descending order of
popularity. Following the previous screening process, the top five terms were
chosen, based on the premise that the sum for each word had to be equal to or
greater than one hundred; the top five words chosen in descending order were:
‘experience/experiential’, ‘consumption’, ‘feel/feelings’, ‘emotive/emotions’, and
‘hedonic/hedonism’. Once again, these terms tend to highly correlate the
terminology used within the literature review and hence the subject area of this
paper. After this, the sum for the total of the five terminologies per paper were
calculated once again, and the texts ordered into ascending order. Lastly, a graph
was designed to view the comparison between the appearance of these top five
36

41. most occurred terminologies within a the top nine most relevant bodies of text [see
Appendix B, Graph 1].
The papers by Pine and Gilmore (1998), Arnould and Price (1993) and Brakus et
al. (2009) all share disproportionate quantities of the terms ‘experience/
experiential’. This makes sense when compared to the content of the literature at
hand; the paper by Pine and Gilmore, titled ‘Welcome to the Experience
Economy’, puts forth proposals on shifting paradigms from service based
economies to experiential ones (1998); the article by Arnould and Price, ‘River
Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter’, explores
how the creation of experiences in service sectors can lead to higher levels of
consumer satisfaction and lasting loyalty (1993); lastly, the paper by Brakus et al.
‘Brand Experience: What is it? How is Measured? Does it Affect Loyalty?’, stays
true to the title and proposes different dimensions and ways of measuring brand
experience by researchers (2009). What all three papers do not cover, are the
aspects of hedonic consumption, mostly associated with the works of Hirschman
and Holbrook (1982), Holbrook (2000, 2001) and Schmitt (1999) - although
Schmitt never refers to the terms ‘hedonic’ or hedonism’, he considers the same
ideologies as Holbrook and Hirschman; this can also be observed in Graph 1.
37

42. Axiology
As Saunders et al. refer to it, Axiology is, “a branch of philosophy that studies
judgements about value” (2009, p.116).
The authors go further into the meaning of this philosophy by relating Heron’s
(1996) views that axiology is perhaps a reflection of the researcher and their
chosen research stance, demonstrating how and where values are placed within
their research itself (Saunders et al., 2009). The authors believe that one’s topic,
research approach and data collection techniques are a reflection of the
researcher’s placement of importance with regards to the subject matter, and
hence their values upon this area, stating the example of data collection through
interview rather than questionnaires displays that one places higher importance
upon personal interaction with respondents (Saunders et al., 2009). The authors
propose that consequences of well laid out values to be increased credibility and
allowance of a clearer introspective nature to one’s research approach and data
collection (Saunders et al., 2009).
Bryman and Bell, identify four differing stances on ethics: “universalism, situation
ethics, ethical transgression is pervasive, and anything goes (more or less)” (2007,
p.129). It is clear that these viewpoints place a descending importance upon
ethical regulations, with the first view claiming “that ethical precepts should never
be broken”, whilst the final does not discard ethical regulations - as its title would
suggest - but view them with increased leniency and flexibility (Bryman and Bell,
2007, p.129).
The University of Lincoln describes key ethical guidelines for Library, Desk,
Laboratory and Studio-based research through various points within an ethical
framework. Perhaps the most pertinent of these are non-falsification of data - one
must refrain from data tampering to produce wanted results; ethics of reporting
research - one must give full attribution of ideas and intellectual property; ethics
and research design - one must be open to a range of methods and argue their
choice of methods used, to allow for unbiased research, and researchers must
38

43. adhere to ethical and legal sources of information; the principle of beneficence -
one must allow for the safe conduct of research; and personal information - one
must have consent from individuals, and unless stated otherwise, assume
anonymity.
These guidelines are similar to the ten key proposed ethical principles by
Easterby-Smith et al. (2012, 95). These are:
1. Ensuring no harm comes to participants
2. Respecting the dignity of research participants
3. Ensuring a fully informed consent of research participants
4. Protecting the privacy of research subjects
5. Ensuring the confidentiality of research data
6. Protecting the anonymity of individuals or organisations
7. Avoiding deception about the nature or aims of the research
8. Declaration of affiliations, funding sources and conflicts of interest
9. Honesty and transparency in communicating about the research
10.Avoidance of any misleading or false reporting of research findings.
Although many of these do not apply to this paper’s method of research, it is
important to consider their ethical implications anyways.
39

44. Findings, Implications and Conclusion
Literary Findings in Relation to the Research Questions
With relation to the first research question, the literature made it evident that
experiences were controllable to a certain extent by the organisation. This
conclusion was arrived through the use of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2005, 2009)
behavioural theories in conjunction with the material on the experiential approach.
Stimuli were found to be strategic in nature within their application to
organisational strategies, and hence could be designed for a purpose. Schmitt’s
(1999) SEMs played an important role in understanding the nature and importance
of stimuli as experience originators, as well as their application methods. It was
found that experience creation can become volatile if not enough care and
consideration is had when designing and controlling internal stimuli.
The second research question allowed for the consideration of stimuli which were
not controlled or accounted for by the organisation and the affect they could have
upon experience creation. It was found that these stimuli could heavily impact and
disturb consumers’ experiences, and hence it was concluded that an organisation
needed to be aware of and consider the influence of these stimuli when designing
their experiential strategies. It also became evident that external stimuli could
present themselves in the form of social norms; this was further explored within
the third research question.
The purpose, influence and origins of social norms and other influential social
systems were examined within the third research question. The importance and
relevance of norms as a strategic tool to be used by organisations during
experience creation was induced through the works of Schmitt (1999). Sociological
and psychological studies by Göckeritz et al. (2014) and Higgs (2015), identified
the importance and prevalence of social pressures upon behaviour. Furthermore,
the structure and types of norms were identified as pertaining to be either
injunctive or descriptive in nature through the literature of Fishbein and Ajzen
(2009). Thus, the relationship between both complementary or dissonant norms
and experience creation was studied, and their resounding effects were induced
40

45. through the use of the literature from Dick and Basu (1994). Lastly, the existence
of the third basic stimuli provider - external social systems - was found through
logical induction regarding the possibility of organisations having influence over
social norms via experiences.
The literature (Dick and Basu, 1994; Fishbein and Ajzen, 2009) and the
conclusions reached from the previous research questions led to the
understanding that brand experiences and social norms may have influential
effects upon brand loyalty creation. Perhaps the effects of enjoyable experiences
upon brand loyalty are explicit, however, it was interesting to note that social
pressures can also influence an individual’s brand preference. The nature of these
relationships were further explored and it was found that brand loyalty can
generate protective barriers against negative experiences and/or social norms;
however, this becomes dependant upon the strength of the relationship between
the consumer and brand (Dick and Basu, 1994). Thus, through the combination of
these findings, it was induced that brand loyalty, social norms and experiences
share a cyclical relationship.
Lastly, from the literature exploring brand loyalty, it became evident that a strong
customer-brand relationship resulted in repeat purchases, increased purchase
intentions, and increased purchase quantities. Furthermore, it was found that
certain authors also testify to the influence positive brand experiences may have
upon purchase intent (Brakus et al., 2009). Anggie and Haryanto (2011) confirmed
that brand experience can lend to both increased purchase intentions but also
increased purchase quantity, as well as the influential effects normative behaviour
may have upon purchase intent. Thus through the analysis of multiple authors
from the literature surrounding purchase intent, it was found that brand loyalty,
social norms and brand experience all have influence over purchase intent.
Implications of the findings
The compiled findings from the literature lent to the development of the final
experiential control model. The framework was designed so that when
41

46. implemented, it may focus around a group of consumers, or a specific consumer
at a given moment. This allows for the possibility of future in-depth research
concerning the opinions, physical and mental processes a consumer underwent
when interacting with the organisation, and the exploration of their attitudes
concerning the brand - such as the level of their intent to purchase or the
propensity with which they allowed themselves to create emotional bonds with the
organisation. As such, when interviewing or studying the model in action, the
researcher can inquire and attempt to isolate specific internal or external stimuli -
controlled or uncontrolled - affecting the consumer, understand if the consumer
was aware of the combination of stimuli set out by the organisation as an
experiential strategy, how and what social norms - injunctive and/or descriptive -
the consumer felt pressured by when undergoing their consumption experience,
the significance of the experience to the consumer and whether it had a positive or
negative effect upon their attitudes towards the brand, whether the consumers
were biased by external stimuli before attempting to interact with the brand, and
after consumption, what was the likelihood of repeat purchases and establishing a
brand connection. As such, the implications for the model in terms of application
and future research are vast.
Conclusions Based upon Literary Analysis
The experiential control model was designed as a response to the problem of
ambiguity expressed within the literature for considering experiential marketing as
a purely subjective approach, to be used in combination with more logical
information processing models. This led to a rise in confusion when authors began
to suggest the this new emotional approach to marketing could and should be
used for all product and service types; claiming that all consumption was in some
form hedonic, scholars believed that catering to these subjective desires would
render more effective then advocating logical reasoning. However, the subjective
nature of experiences also lent to difficulty in measuring consumer’s responses
and understanding the more subtle influences that cause consumers to enjoy
specific brand experiences. Therefore, the purpose of the research was to attempt
to better understand experiential marketing’s position as a behavioural and
42

47. consumption process, without limiting the approach to either emotional or rational
intrigue. Thus, it was important to focus on the factors responsible for creating and
influencing experiences from an organisational point of view. The research
continued further into the possible consequential effects of consumer experiences,
in an attempt to outline all possible factors involved. The result was the creation of
the experiential control model, found on page 32 of this paper, or within Appendix
B, Figure 8.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should focus upon testing the limitations of the model, both
practically and theoretically. As discussed earlier, the model was created through
theoretical analysis and as such lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support its
validity. Referred to within the implications of the model, are possible future
research areas which the model should be placed under and tested against -
although let it be stated that the researcher does not believe these are all
inclusive. These questions pose interesting applications for the framework, but
also place the model under practical stress in its ability to fully consider all possible
relevant measurements involved within the experiential approach. As mentioned
previously, the model may also benefit from increased literary scrutiny, lending to
the removal, adjustment, or supplement of elements involved; when designing the
model from the literature, the researcher had considered including three elements
not currently present in the final copy: beliefs and perceptions (BP), attitude
towards the brand (Ab) and approach behaviour (AB). Perhaps future research can
explore these fields and assess their relationships with other factors in the model
and include them in a revised experiential control framework.
43

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