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The end of the Pyramid Age was the result of climatic change. Discuss.
See now, things are done that never were done before,
The King has been robbed by beggars...
See now, the land is deprived of kingship
By a few people who ignore custom.
Admonitions 7, 1-4 abridged (Grimal, 2002 p.138)
This text, attributed to Ipuwer, although its “general tone and the choice of facts [is]
prophetic” there is a suggestion that the text is “prophetic” (Grimal, 2002 p.138), there are
clear suggestions of the state of Egypt at the fall of the Pyramid Age. In this essay, I will
discuss the extent that the end of the Pyramid Age can be attributed to change of climate or
whether other factors are more influential such as a “slow decline in royal authority” (Grimal,
2002 p.137).
Clearly established from the 3rd dynasty and onwards (Brown, 2010, Handout 1), there was a
development of sand burials evolving into mastabas (Brown, 2010, Course Lecture 10, 18th
March 2010). Although it was originally conceived as a mastaba Gardiner, 1961 p.73), this
developed into Djośer’s step pyramid (Edwards, 1993 p.34) which many scholars credit
should be more due to his noted architect Imhotep (Gardiner, 1961 p.72). Scholars have also
suggested are steps used to represent the steps for the pharaoh to ascend to heaven (Brown,
2010, Course Lecture 6, 25th March 2010). Djośer’s pyramid was a significant development
with a height of 204 feet (Gardiner, 1961, p.72). Sneferu then developed certain innovations
such as the bent pyramid, collapsed pyramids and a corbel ceiling (Brown, 2010, Handout
10). This culminated in the “Great Pyramid of Khufu” (Brown, 2010, Handout 1).’ After this
culmination, there was a general decline with Menkure’s pyramid “half as high as those of
Khufu” (Breasted, 1924 p.111).

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A unified Egypt gave the pharaoh great power as it created “uniform material culture ... [and]
unified political control” (Spencer, 1993, p.48) and created more “land...manpower...[and]
control.” (Brown, 2010, Course Lecture 6, 25th March 2010). By logical deduction, I argue
that the vast resources both in terms of energy spent, materials and people needed, shows the
success of the pyramid age. Furthermore, there was a “glorified image” of a unified Egypt
under one ruler (Hart, 1991, p.46) which I argue would have increased the power of the ruler
as would have seemed even more almighty and needing to be obeyed by the normal people.
One theory suggested is that a volcanic eruption may have affected the end of the Pyramid
Age as Mike Betty of NASA suggests that “volcanic eruption can alter climate” (Brown,
2010, Course Lecture 10, 25th March 2010). However, I argue that there is not enough
evidence of this happening and whereas in other volcanic eruptions throughout history, there
has been much material evidence found, such as ash and sulphur deposits, this is simply not
found in Egypt. For this reason, I also discount the comet theory (Brown, 2010, Course
Lecture 10, 25th March 2010) as a reason for the fall of the Pyramid Age as no craters or any
evidence has been found.
I think a key in the mystery of the fall of the Pyramid Age is the Nile. The Nile was key to
Ancient Egypt and there are notable “references to the Nile” in all Egyptian texts (Oesterley,
1927, p.7). The “heavy summer rains in Ethiopia swell enormously the volume of the
tributaries [of the Nile]” (Kemp, 1991, p.8) which causes annual flooding. This inundation is
where Egypt derives its fertility. By deduction through logic, if there was a lower than
expected than inundation of the Nile, this would produce a significant effect on the Nile.
Through looking at Nilometers, it is obvious that there are huge variations in the levels of the
Nile inundation (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 9A).

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Fekri Hassan theorises that there was sudden climate change (Brown, 2010, Course Handout
9C). He argues that it could be by “extra terrestrial forces”, “local variation in ocean
temperatures as well as surface temperatures” or related to “flip-flops due to variations in the
circulation of water in the oceans” (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 9C). There is some
evidence of sudden climatic change especially from primary sources such as from the
prophecy of Neferty, “Men cross over the water1 on foot...The South wind drives away the
North wind and the sky has still only one wind” (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 7D).
However, I cannot conclude that this was one of the factors of the fall of the Pyramid Age as
the evidence is not conclusive. Hassan himself notes “the causes for abrupt changes... are still
not known” (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 9C).
Fekri Hassan argues that the for a period of a number years, the Nile’s floods were much
lower which would have cause widespread famine as though the Egyptians had grain in the
royal stores that could only extend provision for a maximum of four years (Brown, 2010,
Course Handout 9C). A paper by Barbara Bell adds weight to Hassan’s theory by stating that
a severe drought2 would bring “crop failures, famines and civil disorder” (Brown, 2010,
Course Handout 8).
Textual references from primary sources also back up these scholars. The most convincing is
from a local governor’s tomb, Ankitfy, that talks of the country as a “starved grasshopper”
and that “the whole of Upper Egypt died from hunger and each individual had reached such a
state of hunger that he ate his own children” (Shaw, 2004, p.135). Some scholars suggest that
Ankitfy may have been exaggerating to show his good deeds as later in the inscription he
mentions how he himself helped those in need (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 9). However, I
argue that Ankitfy is unlikely to have exaggerated such a graphic and taboo subject as
1 The water referred is the Nile River.
2 This is,in effect, what a longer than expected floodingof the Nile is.

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cannibalism if it had not actually taken place. Furthermore, Bell notes that there are
references to famine throughout many primary sources of the time (Brown, 2010, Course
Handout 8) such as in the prophecy of Neferty “the river of Egypt is empty” (Brown, 2010,
Course Handout 7D) .3
Gardiner supports the argument that these sources should not be treated with “undue
skeptism” by stating ancient texts without “conflicting evidence [should be treated as] the
best available evidence” (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 8). As backing to the theory that
famine can cause a fall of the Pyramid Age, Bell notes that famine “influence the psyche of
the educated Egyptians [with a] radical change in values ... [and caused] a severe shock and
confidence in an enduring continuity” (Brown, 2010, Course Handout 8).
The Tana Project which is the “source of the Blue Nile in Northern Ethiopia” (Lamb et al,
2007, p.1) reveals a high discharge of sediment at the time of the fall of the Pyramid Age
(Lamb et al, 2007, p.1 and Brown, 2010, Course Lecture 10, 25th March 2010). This resulted
in the conditions of the Lake and thus the Nile such as making it “slightly saline” and a
change in the level of sediment in the Nile (Lamb et al, 2007 p.287). This would have had a
profound effect on the Nile and I thus logically infer would have changed the fertility that the
Nile could provide to the land, thus causing famine. There is textual backing to this through
descriptions of the Nile changing colour (Brown, Course Lecture 10, 2010, 25th March 2010).
In addition to this, one cold infer from the description in the prophecy of Neferty of “birds no
longer hatch[ing] their eggs in swamps of the delta” (Brown, 2010, Handout 7D) that there a
possible reason for this was the change in the composition of the Nile.
In my study of different periods of history, a common cause for the fall of an Age seems to be
disease. This disease ranges from plague to influenza outbreaks or pandemics. However, in
3 I am grateful for the writer-in-residencefor helping clarify my argument here, by suggestingI blend in less
directquotes and more indirectquotes.

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the case of the Fall of the Pyramid Age, I can find no evidence for disease being a cause of
this. There is neither any material evidence nor evidence in primary or secondary sources.
Although the reasons mentioned above are clear climatic reasons for the end of the Pyramid
Age, there are clear non-climatic reasons also. One reason becomes clear when you look at
the sheer size and scale of Khufu’s pyramid at Giza. George Hart states that the dimension of
Khufu’s pyramid was 137 metres tall with lengths of the side of the pyramids measuring 230
metres (Hart, 1991, p.89). The sheer size of this pyramid, in my logical assessment, would
have taken a huge amount of state resources, time and manpower especially when one takes
into account that the Pyramid would have a Pyramid town attached to it. I argue, that the
amount of state resources that the Pyramid Complexes were consuming, meant that
eventually the resources became strained and the pyramid building became to expensive and
expansive that the resources became limited.
Of vital importance in Ancient Egyptian society was the pharaoh, the king was “military
commander, head of treasury, high priest, judge and owned the land” and the pyramids of
Giza “represented the centralised power of the king, [his] immortality... and immense power”
(Brown, 2010, Course Handout 4). At the time of the decline of the Pyramid Age, there was
no certain ruler which would have had a profound effect on Egyptian society and stability.
Furthermore, there was a “struggle of the local governors for a larger degree of power and
liberty” (Breasted, 1924 p.117). This twinned with the increase in the power of the priests
(Brown, 2010, Course lecture 10, 25th March 2010) and the possible abuse of state resources
(Brown, 2010, Course lecture 10, 25th March 2010) gave the ruler less power and thus would
have exacerbated the fall of the Pyramid Age.
The reasons discussed in this essay have all been primarily internal factors for the fall of the
Pyramid Age. Bell argues that in very severe famine, there is a risk of an “incite[ment] [of]

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invasions from marginal lands.” This is not a primary factor in the fall of the Pyramid Age,
but primary sources do note “foes are in the East, Asiatics are come down into Egypt”
(Brown, 2010, Course Handout 7D).
In conclusion, there were many factors that led to the downfall of the Pyramid Age, with
some climatic change factors. Whilst the volcanic and comet climatic change factors, I do not
find convincing, I argue that the change in the flooding of the Nile and composition of the
Nile are important climatic change factors in the fall of the Pyramid Age. However, the lack
of a clear ruler, rising power of priests and nomarchs and reduction in state resources, cannot
be underestimated and are vital factors in the fall of the Pyramid Age. Furthermore, it must be
noted that there is still much uncertainty over all the true causes and nature of the downfall of
the Pyramid Age and much disagreement in the scholarly community.
My final conclusion is whist climatic change was an important factor in the end of the
Pyramid Age, there were other factors that cause the end of the Pyramid Age. I would argue
that the lack of the king and clear stability in Egypt twinned with famine were the dominant
factor in the end of the Pyramid Age. However, all these factors are interlinked, as the famine
would not have happened were it not for the change of the level of the Nile flood which was a
climatic change.

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Bibliography
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course, University of Edinburgh
Brown, D. 2010 Open Studies Course, “The Rise and Fall of the Pyramid Age”, University
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Edwards, I.E.S, 1993, The Pyramids of Egypt. 3rd Ed. London: Penguin.
Gardiner, Alan, 1961, Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Grimal, Nicolas, 2002, A History of Ancient Egypt. London: Blackwell Publishing.
Hart, George, 1991, Pharaohs and Pyramids: A Guide Through Old Kingdom Egypt. London:
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Kemp, Barry J., 1991, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of A Civilization. London: Routledge.
Henry F. Lamb, C. Richard Bates, Paul V. Coombes, Michael H. Marshall, Mohammed
Umer, Sarah J. Davies and Eshete Dejen, 2007. Late Pleistocene desiccation of Lake Tana,
source of the Blue Nile. Quaternary Science Review. 26 (2007), p.287-299
Oesterley, W.O.E, 1927, The Wisdom of Egypt & The Old Testament: In Light of the newly
discoverery “Teaching of Amen-em-ope”. London: Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge.
Shaw, Ian, 2004, Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Spencer, A.J, 1993, Early Egypt: The Rise of Civilisation in the Nile Valley. London: British
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