Here is the file

1. Chapter 1: Introduction
to Lifespan
Development
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective
By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French (Published 2017)

2. In this chapter:
◻ The lifespan perspective
� Periods of development
� Theories of development
◻ Research methods and issues
� Types of research studies
� Ethical issues

3. What is developmental
psychology?
◻ Scientific study of how people change
� Multiple areas (cognition, emotional control, etc.)
� Also concerned with what causes changes
� May focus on specific age group or entire lifespan
� May also look at how people don’t change

4. Key questions
◻ Qualitative or quantitative differences?
� Do children think differently than adults or just have
less knowledge?
◻ Continuous or discontinuous?
� Is change gradual or marked by distinct stages?
◻ Nature or nurture?
� Is development innate or affected by experience?

5. Learning objectives: The lifespan
perspective
◻ Explain the lifespan perspective and its
assumptions about development
◻ Differentiate periods of human development
◻ Explain the issues underlying lifespan development
◻ Identify the historical and contemporary theories
impacting lifespan development

6. The lifespan perspective (Baltes,
1987)
◻ Development is lifelong
� No one age period is more important than another
◻ Development is multidirectional
� Includes both gains and losses
◻ Development is multidimensional
� Physical – Body growth, immune function, motor skills
� Cognitive – Attention, memory, language, intelligence
� Psychosocial – Self-perception, relationships

7. The lifespan perspective (Baltes,
1987) (continued)
◻ Development is multidisciplinary
� Involves fields such as biology, sociology, and
medicine
◻ Development is characterized by plasticity
� Plasticity – Many of our characteristics are malleable
and can be changed
◻ Development is multicontextual
� Affected by circumstances such as time and
socioeconomic status

8. Contexts of development (Baltes,
1987)
◻ Normative age-graded influences
� Changes experienced by people in a certain age
group (e.g., learning to talk, puberty, retirement)
◻ Normative history-graded influences
� Changes experienced by people alive at a certain
time (e.g., war, epidemics, economic recession)
� Cohort - A group of people born at roughly the same
period in a particular society
◻ Non-normative life influences
� Individual experiences (e.g., illness, winning the
lottery)

9. Table 1.1
Which generation (cohort) are you?
Generation Born between …
Silent Generation 1928 and 1945
Baby Boomers 1946 and 1964
Generation X 1965 and 1980
Millennials 1980 and later

10. Socioeconomic status
◻ Identifier based on shared levels of education,
income, and occupation
◻ People of similar SES are often similar in other
ways (e.g., parenting styles, where they live,
stressors)
◻ Higher SES associated with more control and less
stress
◻ Lower SES associated with poorer health and lower
life expectancy due to poor diet, dangerous jobs,
lack of medical care, etc.

11. Culture
◻ Totality of shared language, knowledge, material
objects, and behavior
� Ideas about right and wrong
� Social interaction behaviors
� Food, music, and activity preferences
� Beliefs about achievement and success
◻ Culture is learned from the people around us
◻ Helps members function in their society

12. Culture (continued)
◻ Ethnocentrism – Belief that one’s own culture is
superior to other cultures
◻ Cultural relativity
� Appreciation for cultural differences
� Understanding that cultural practices are best
understood from the standpoint of that particular
culture

13. Lifespan vs. life expectancy
◻ Lifespan (longevity)
� The length of time a species can exist under the most
optimal conditions
� Species-specific
◻ Life expectancy
� Predicted number of years a person born in a
particular time period can reasonably expect to live
� Affected by behavior, experiences, individual genetic
factors

14. Conceptions of age
◻ Chronological age - The number of years since your
birth
◻ Biological age – How quickly your body is aging
◻ Psychological age – Psychologically adaptive
capacity compared to others of our chronological
age
◻ Social age - Based on the social norms of our
culture and the expectations our culture has for
people of our age group

15. Periods of development
◻ Prenatal – Conception to birth
◻ Infancy and toddlerhood – Birth to 2 years of age
◻ Early childhood – 2 to 6 years of age
◻ Middle childhood – 6 years of age to puberty
◻ Adolescence – From onset of puberty to age 18
◻ Emerging adulthood – 18 to 25 years of age
◻ Early adulthood – 25 to 40 or 45 years of age
◻ Middle adulthood – 40-45 to 60-65 years of age
◻ Late adulthood – Age 65 and older

16. Table 1.2
Age periods of development
Age Period Description
Prenatal Starts at conception, continues through
implantation in the uterine wall by the embryo,
and ends at birth.
Infancy and Toddlerhood Starts at birth and continues to two years of age
Early Childhood Starts at two years of age until six years of age
Middle and Late Childhood Starts at six years of age and continues until the
onset of puberty
Adolescence Starts at the onset of puberty until 18
Emerging Adulthood Starts at 18 until 25
Early Adulthood Starts at 25 until 40-45
Middle Adulthood Starts at 40-45 until 60-65
Late Adulthood Starts at 65 onward

17. Issues in development: Nature and
nurture
◻ Question about causes of development – Why are
we the way we are?
� Nature perspective - Heredity plays the most
important role in causing a trait/behavior
� Nurture perspective – The environment is most
significant in shaping the way we are
◻ Many things are caused by interaction of nature and
nurture

18. Issues in development: Continuity
vs. discontinuity
◻ Question about the course of development –
Gradual process or abrupt change?
◻ Continuous
� Development is a slow and gradual process
◻ Discontinuous
� Developmental change often occurs in distinct stages
� Stages are qualitatively different from each other
� Stages occur in a set, universal sequence

19. Figure 1.6
Continuous and discontinuous
development
◻ The tree represents continuous development, while
the ladybug represents discontinuous/stage
development

20. Issues in development: Active vs.
passive
◻ How much of a role do we play in our development?
◻ Active – We construct our experiences
◻ Passive – We are affected by the environment or
our genes with little control

21. Issues in development: Stability vs.
change
◻ How much do we change as we develop?
◻ In what ways do we change?
◻ Stability perspective – We change very little from
childhood to adulthood
◻ Change perspective – Initial tendencies modified by
experiences

22. Historical theories of development
◻ Preformationism - A tiny, fully
formed human is implanted in the
sperm or egg at conception and
then grows in size until birth
� Assumes infants are born with all
capabilities intact
� Environment plays no role in
development

23. Historical theories of development
(continued)
◻ Tabula rasa (blank slate) – John Locke
� Child’s mind entirely shaped by environment
� Early experiences important
◻ Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s theory
� Development occurs on biological timetable
� Children should be allowed to develop naturally

24. Historical theories of development
(continued)
◻ Maturational theory – Arnold Gesell
� Development activated by genes
� Development occurred in fixed sequences
◻ Freud’s psychosexual theory
� Must learn to transform biological instincts into
socially acceptable behaviors
� Early experiences important

25. Contemporary theories of
development
◻ Erikson’s psychosocial theory
� Each period of life has a unique challenge
(psychosocial crisis) that must be managed
� Resolution of early crises may affect later crises
◻ Learning theory (behaviorism)
� Psychology should focus on observable behavior
� Environment is important for affecting development

26. Table 1.3
Erikson’s psychosocial stages
Age range Psychosocial crisis Positive resolution of crisis
Birth to 12 to 18
months
Trust versus Mistrust The child develops a feeling of trust in his or her
caregivers.
18 months to 3
years
Autonomy versus
shame/doubt
The child learns what he or she can and cannot control
and develops a sense of free will.
3 to 6 years Initiative versus Guilt The child learns to become independent by exploring,
manipulating, and taking action.
6 to 12 years Industry versus
inferiority
The child learns to do things well or correctly according
to standards set by others, particularly in school.
12 to 18 years Identity versus role
confusion
The adolescent develops a well-defined and positive
sense of self in relationship to others.
19 to 40 years Intimacy versus
isolation
The person develops the ability to give and receive
love and to make long-term commitments.
40 to 65 years Generativity versus
stagnation
The person develops an interest in guiding the
development of the next generation, often by becoming
a parent.
65 to death Ego integrity versus
despair
The person develops acceptance of his or her life as it
was lived.

27. Contemporary theories of
development (continued)
◻ Social learning theory
� We learn through observation and imitation (Bobo doll
video)
� Reciprocal determinism – We influence the
environment and vice versa

28. Contemporary theories of
development (continued)
◻ Piaget’s cognitive theory
� Children of different ages interpret the world
differently
� Changes caused by maturation, not training
◻ Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
� Culture and social interaction influence cognitive
development
� Can increase performance with proper guidance

29. Table 1.4
Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development
Stage Approximate age
range
Characteristics Stage attainments
Sensorimotor Birth to about 2 years The child experiences the world
through the fundamental senses of
seeing, hearing, touching, and
tasting.
Object permanence
Preoperational 2 to 7 years Children acquire the ability to
internally represent the world
through language and mental
imagery. They also start to see the
world from other people’s
perspectives.
Theory of mind; rapid
increase in language
ability
Concrete
operational
7 to 11 years Children become able to think
logically. They can increasingly
perform operations on objects that
are real.
Conservation
Formal
operational
11 years to adulthood Adolescents can think
systematically, can reason about
abstract concepts, and can
understand ethics and scientific
Abstract logic

30. Contemporary theories of
development (continued)
◻ Information processing theory
� Cognitive development is continuous
� We’re born with the ability to notice stimuli, store, and
retrieve information
� Brain maturation and experiences develop our
information processing system

31. Contemporary theories of
development (continued)
◻ Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory –
Individuals function in and are impacted by systems
� Microsystem – Immediate settings and people
� Mesosystem – Organizational structures (e.g., school,
religion) that affect microsystem
� Exosystem – Community’s values, history, and
economy
� Macrosystem – Influence of culture
� Chronosystem – Influence of time

32. Figure 1.11
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory

33. Learning objectives: Research
methods
◻ Define the scientific method
◻ Compare research methods noting the advantages
and disadvantages of each.
◻ Explain research involving time spans
◻ Explain ways to conduct ethical research

34. Research methods: Terms
◻ Scientific method - The assumptions, rules, and
procedures scientists use to conduct research
◻ Research design – The specific way a researcher
collects, analyzes, and interprets data
� Descriptive research describes what is occurring at a
particular point in time
� Correlational research examines relationships among
variables
� Experimental research involves manipulating
variables to see their effects

35. Types of descriptive research
◻ Case study – Describe experience of individual or
small group
◻ Naturalistic observation – Observe and record
behavior in everyday settings
◻ Laboratory observation – Observe behavior in a
setting created by the researcher

36. Types of descriptive research
(continued)
◻ Survey – Verbal or written questionnaire
� Sample – Group who participates in the study
� Population – Larger group the sample is based on
� A representative sample includes the same
percentages of genders, age groups, ethnic groups,
and socio-economic groups as the larger population
� Social desirability – Participants might lie to make
themselves look good

37. Types of descriptive research
(continued)
◻ Interview – Direct questioning by
researcher
◻ Psychophysiological assessment –
Biological measures (e.g., heart rate,
hormone levels, brain activity)
◻ Secondary/Content analysis – Examine
information already collected (e.g.,
media, existing data sets)

38. Correlational research
◻ Assesses relationship between two or more
variables
◻ Does not show causation
� May not know direction of relationship
■ TV violence causes aggression? Or aggressive kids
watch more violent TV?
� Third variable may produce relationship
■ Parenting style may affect both aggression and TV
viewing

39. Correlational research (continued)
◻ Pearson correlation coefficient – Most common
statistical measure
� Ranges from -1 to 1
� Strength indicated by distance from 0
■ Closer to 0 = Weaker
■ Farther from 0 = Stronger
� Direction indicated by valence
■ Positive = Both variables change in same direction
■ Negative = Variables change in opposite directions

40. Figure 1.14
Examples of scatter plots

41. Figure 1.15
Illustration of third variable influence

42. Experimental method
◻ Studies cause-and-effect relationships
◻ Tests hypotheses – Specific statements about the
relationships between variables
� Variable = Something that changes in value
� Independent variable
■ Causal variable
■ Manipulated/controlled by researcher
� Dependent variable
■ Measured (outcome) variable
■ Believed to be affected by IV

43. Experimental method (continued)
◻ Participants randomly assigned to groups
� Each group receives different level of IV
■ Experimental group receives treatment
■ Control group doesn’t
� Compare each group on outcome (DV)
■ Different outcomes caused by differences in IV
◻ Control for extraneous variables
� Variables that could affect results but aren’t part of
experiment

44. Table 1.5
Characteristics of the three research
designs
Research design Goal Advantages Disadvantages
Descriptive To create a snapshot of
the current state of
affairs
Provides a relatively
complete picture of what
is occurring at a given
time. Allows the
development of
questions for further
study.
Does not assess
relationships among
variables. May be
unethical if participants
do not know they are
being observed.
Correlational To assess the
relationships between
and among two or more
variables
Allows testing of
expected relationships
between and among
variables and the
making of predictions.
Can assess these
relationships in
everyday life events.
Cannot be used to draw
inferences about the
causal relationships
between and among the
variables.
Experimental To assess the causal
impact of one or more
experimental
manipulations on a
dependent variable
Allows drawing of
conclusions about the
causal relationships
among variables.
Cannot experimentally
manipulate many
important variables. May
be expensive and time
consuming.
Source: Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Cengage.

45. Developmental research
◻ Cross-sectional research
� Compare different groups that
vary in age
� Cohort effect – Age differences
caused by being born in a
certain time period
■ Differences in attitudes,
experiences, education

46. Developmental research
(continued)
◻ Longitudinal research
� Study one group repeatedly over time
� Attrition – People stop participating
� Practice effect – Performance improves with practice

47. Developmental research
(continued)
◻ Sequential research
� Study multiple age groups over time

48. Table 1.6
Time span research designs advantages and
disadvantages

49. Ethics in research
◻ Prevent harm to participants
◻ Informed consent
� Participants must understand what they’ll be asked to
do and why
� Some deception may be allowed
� Children ineligible to give informed consent

50. Ethics in research (continued)
◻ Confidentiality
◻ Deception - Participants are not fully informed about
the nature of the research project before
participating in it
◻ Debriefing - Explain the purposes and procedures of
the research and remove any harmful aftereffects