2. Content
Introduction
Seven Phases in the Systems Development
Life Cycle
Knowledge Workers and Their Roles in the
Systems Development Life Cycle
Why Systems Fail
Selfsourcing
Outsourcing
Prototyping
3. Introduction
Information systems supply the support
structure for meeting the company’s strategies
and goals.
The systems development life cycle(SDLC) is
a structured step-by-step approach for
developing information systems (See Figure 1)
5. Seven Phases in the Systems Development Life
CycleSDLC
PHASE
ACTIVITIES
1. PLAN • Design the system to be developed
• Set the project scope
• Develop the project plan including tasks, resources, and
timeframes
2. ANALYSIS • Gather the business requirements for the system
3. DESIGN • Design the technique architecture required to support the
system
• Design systems models
4. DEVELOP • Build the technical architecture
• Build the database and programs
5. TEST • Write the test conditions
• Perform the testing of the system
6. IMPLEMENT • Write detailed user documentation
• Provide training for the system users
7. MAINTAIN • Build a help desk to support the system users
6. Phase 1: Planning
Identify and Select the System for Development
Knowledge workers generate proposals to build new
information systems when they are having a difficult time
performing their jobs. For example, knowledge workers
might have trouble gathering information, generating
reports, or producing invoices.
A critical success factor (CSF) is a factor simply critical
to your organization’s success.
Set Project Scope
Project scope clearly defines the high-level system
requirements. Scope is often referred to as the 10,000-
foot view of the system or the most basic definition of the
system.
A project scope document is a written definition of the
project scope and is usually no longer than a
7. Develop Project Plan
The project plan defines the what, when, and who
questions of system development including all activities
to be performed, the individuals, or resources, who will
perform the activities, and the time required to complete
each activity. The project plan is the guiding force behind
ensuring the on-time delivery of a complete and
successful information system.
Project milestones represent key dates for which you
need a certain group of activities performed.
A project manager, an individual who is an expert in
project planning and management, defines and develops
the project plan and tracks the plan to ensure all key
project milestones are completed on time. The project
plan is somewhat similar to the syllabus for your course.
It tells what things are due, when they are due, and who
is expected to complete them.
8. Phase 2: Analysis
The analysis phase involves end users and IT
specialists working together to gather,
understand, and document the business
requirements for the proposed system.
9. Business requirements are the detailed set of
knowledge worker requests that the system must
meet in order to be successful. The key activity in
this phase is gathering clearly defined business
requirements. the requirements states what the
system must do from the business perspective,
giving no details or information on how the system
is going to meet this requirement.
An extremely useful way to gather system
requirements is to perform a joint application
development session. During a joint application
development (JAD) session knowledge workers
and IT specialists meet, sometimes for several
days, to define or review the business
requirements for the system.
10. Once you define all of the business
requirements, you prioritize them in order of
business importance and place them in a
formal comprehensive document or the
requirements definition document. The
knowledge workers receive the requirements
definition document for their sign-off.
Sign-off is the knowledge workers’ actual
signatures indicating they approve all of the
business requirements
11. Phase 3: Design
The primary goal of the design phase is to build
a technical blueprint of how the proposed
system will work. During the analysis phase, end
users and IT specialists work together to
develop the business requirements for the
proposed system from a logical point of view.
During analysis you document the business
requirements without respect to technology or
the technical infrastructure that will support the
system.
12. Design The Technical Architecture
The technical architecture defines the hardware,
software, and telecommunications equipment
required to run the system.
Deign System Models
Modeling is the activity of drawing a graphical
representation of a design. You model
everything you build including screens, reports,
software, and databases. There are many
different types of modeling activities performed
during the design phase including GUI screen
design.
13. The graphical user interface (GUI) is the
interface to an information system. GUI screen
design is the ability to model the information
system screens for an entire system. You base
your decisions on how and where to display
menu items based on whatever is easiest for
the knowledge workers to use. (Figure 2,
Graphical User Interface—GUI Screen
Design)
15. Phase 4: Develop
During the develop phase, you take all of your
detailed design documents from the design
phase and transform them into an actual
system. This phase marks the point where you
go from physical design to physical
implementation.
16. Build the Technical Architecture
In the development phase, you purchase and
implement equipment necessary to support the
technical architecture.
Build the Batabase and Software
Once the technical blueprint is built, you initiate
and complete the creating of supporting
databases and writing the software required for
systems. These tasks are actually done by IT
specialists, and it may take months or even
years to design and create the databases and
write all the software.
17. Phase 5: Test
The testing phase verifies that the system
works and meets all of the business
requirements defined in the analysis phase.
18. Test Conditions: The Primary Tool
for Testing Success
Test conditions are the detailed steps the
system must perform along with the expected
results of each step.
Each time the actual result is different from the
expected result a ―bug‖ is generated, and the
system goes back to development for a ―bug
fix.‖
19. T
N
o
Date
Teste
d
Tester Test Condition Expected Result Actual Result P/F
1 1/1/05 Emily
Hickman
Click on System
Start Button
Main Menu appears Same asPass
expected
result
P
2 1/1/05 Emily
Hickman
Click on Logon
Button in Main
Menu
Logon Screen appears
asking for Username and
Password
Same asPass
expected
result
P
3 1/1/05 Emily
Hickman
Type Emily
Hickman in the
User Name Field
Emily Hickman appears in
the User Name Field
Same asPass
expected
result
P
4 1/1/05 Emily
Hickman
Type Zahara 123 in
the password field
XXXXXXXXX appears in
the password field
Same asPass
expected
result
P
5 1/1/05 Emily
Hickman
Click on O.K.
button
User logon request is sent
to database and user
name and password are
verified
Same asPass
expected
result
P
6 1/1/05 Emily
Hickma
n
Click on Start User name and
password are accepted
and the system main
Screen Fail
appeared stating
logon failed and
username and
F
20. Phase 6: Implement
The goal of phase 6—implementation—is to
bring the proposed system to life by placing it
in the organization. During the implementation
phase, you distribute the system to all of the
knowledge workers and they begin using the
system to perform their everyday jobs.
21. User Implementation
When you install the system, you must also provide
the knowledge workers with a set of user
documentation that highlights how to use the system
(manual accompanied a software program)
Training
Online training runs over the Internet or off a CD-
COM. Knowledge workers perform the training at any
time, on their own computers, at their own pace.
Workshop Training is held in a classroom environment
and led by an instructor. Workshop training is great for
difficult systems where the knowledge workers need
one-on-one time with an individual instructor.
22. Phase 7: Maintain
During the maintenance phase, you monitor
and support the new system to ensure it
continues to meet the business goals.
23. Help Desk
A help desk is a group of people who respond
to knowledge workers’ questions. Typically,
knowledge workers have a phone number for
the help desk they call whenever they have
issues or questions about the system.
Help Change
As change arises in the business environment,
you must react to those changes by assessing
the impact on the system.
24. Knowledge Workers and Their Roles in the
Systems Development Life Cycle
Business process expert
Liaison to the customer
Quality control analyst
Manager of other people
25. Why Systems Fail
Unclear or missing requirements
Skipping SDLC phases
Failure to manage project scope
Failure to manage project plan
Changing technology
26. Who Build the System
IT specialists within your organization—
Insourcing
Knowledge workers such as yourself—
selfsourcing
Another organizaton—outsourcing
28. Advantages of Self-Sourcing
Improves requirement determination
By selfsourcing, knowledge workers determine the requirements for the system by
telling themselves what they want. This is in comparison to insourcing, where the
knowledge workers tell the IT specialists what they want. By working from their own
thoughts, the knowledge workers will have a tremendous understanding of what they
want to the system to become. There is therefore a greater chance for success in
terms of the purpose of the system.
Increases knowledge worker participation and sense of ownership
By developing the system themselves, the knowledge workers will take more pride in
the system and are more likely exert a greater effort into its completion. This will give
the knowledge workers a greater sense of ownership and can lead to increase
worker morale. Increased morale can be infectious and lead to great benefits in
several other areas.
Increases speed of systems development
Many smaller systems do not require the step-by-step approach and a huge amount
of time and resources concentrated on a smaller system. By insourcing and going
through every step and with the IT specialists analyzing every move, it may in fact be
counterproductive. Selfsourcing can be much faster for smaller projects that do not
require the full process of development.
29. Potential Pitfalls and Risks of Selfsourcing
Inadequate expertise
Many knowledge workers do not have experience with IT
tools to develop a selfsourcing system. This is due to their
lack the knowledge and expertise with IT tools. As a result
many systems become uncompleted and potentially good
ideas are thrown away. With uncompleted projects many
worker hours were also wasted which draw workers away
from their primary duties.
Lack of organizational focus
Many selfsourcing systems can be disadvantageous because
it forms a privatized IT system. This may result in poor
integration with systems in the rest of the organization. As a
result, uncontrolled and duplicate information can become
common and can lead to more problems than benefits.
30. Lack of design alternative analysis
Another problem is that many employees who create their
own IT systems do not analyze all the hardware and software
opportunities sufficiently. As a result, more efficient
alternatives may not be noticed and utilized. This can lead to
inefficient and costly systems.
Lack of documentation
Lastly, knowledge workers are not aware that as time
changes they must change and update their own systems
without the help of IT specialists. As all systems will and must
change over time, knowledge workers must forecast these
changes and have the ability to adapt. Knowledge workers
must also provide sufficient documentation on how the
system works for future use. With little documentation the life
of the system depends solely on the few knowledge workers.
With documentation, the system can be passed down and
used by more workers.
31. OUTSOURCING
Outsourcing – the delegation of
specified work to a third party for a
specified length of time, at a specified
cost, and at a specified level of service
The third ―who‖ option of systems
development, after insourcing and
selfsourcing
34. Outsourcing – RFP
Request for proposal (RFP) – formal document
that describes in excruciating detail your logical
requirements for a proposed system and invites
outsourcing organizations to submit bids for its
development
In outsourcing, you must tell another organization
what you want developed; you do that with an RFP
Therefore, the RFP must be very detailed
Some RFPs can take years to develop
35. Outsourcing Options
There are three different forms of
outsourcing:
1. Onshore outsourcing - the process of
engaging another company within the same
country for services
2. Nearshore outsourcing - contracting an
outsourcing arrangement with a company in
a nearby country
3. Offshore outsourcing - contracting with a
company that is geographically far away
38. Page 398-399
• Advantages:
– Only basic requirements needed at front end
– Used to develop systems that radically change how
work is done, so users can evaluate
– Allows firms to explore use of new technology
– Working system available for testing more quickly
– Less strong top-down commitment needed at front end
– Costs and benefits can be derived after experience with
initial prototype
– Initial user acceptance likely higher
Prototyping Advantages and Disadvantages
PROTOTYPING
METHODOLOGY
39. Page 399
• Disadvantages:
– End prototype often lacks security and control
features
– May not undergo as rigorous testing
– Final documentation may be less complete
– More difficult to manage user expectations
Prototyping Advantages and Disadvantages
PROTOTYPING
METHODOLOGY
