1. Consumerism is a social and economic order based on fostering a desire to purchase goods
and services in ever greater amounts. The term is often associated with criticisms of
consumption starting with Thorstein Veblen. Veblen's subject of examination, the newly
emergent middle class arising at the turn of the twentieth century, comes to full fruition by
the end of the twentieth century through the process of globalization.[1]
Sometimes, the term "consumerism" is also used to refer to the consumerists movement,
consumer protection or consumer activism, which seeks to protect and inform consumers by
requiring such practices as honest packaging and advertising, product guarantees, and
improved safety standards. In this sense it is a movement or a set of policies aimed at
regulating the products, services, methods, and standards of manufacturers, sellers, and
advertisers in the interests of the buyer.[2]
In economics, consumerism refers to economic policies placing emphasis on consumption. In
an abstract sense, it is the belief that the free choice of consumers should dictate the
economic structure of a society (cf. Producerism, especially in the British sense of the
term).[3]
The term "consumerism" was first used in 1915 to refer to "advocacy of the rights and
interests of consumers" (Oxford English Dictionary) but in this article the term
"consumerism" refers to the sense first used in 1960, "emphasis on or preoccupation with the
acquisition of consumer goods" (Oxford English Dictionary).
Origins
Consumerism has weak links with the Western world, but is in fact an international
phenomenon. People purchasing goods and consuming materials in excess of their basic
needs is as old as the first civilizations (e.g. Ancient Egypt, Babylon and Ancient Rome).
A great turn in consumerism arrived just before the Industrial Revolution. In the nineteenth
century, capitalist development and the industrial revolution were primarily focused on the
capital goods sector and industrial infrastructure (i.e., mining, steel, oil, transportation
networks, communications networks, industrial cities, financial centers, etc.).[4]
At that time, agricultural commodities, essential consumer goods, and commercial activities
had developed to an extent, but not to the same extent as other sectors. Members of the
working classes worked long hours for low wages – as much as 16 hours per day, 6 days per
week. Little time or money was left for consumer activities.[5]
In the 21st century
Beginning in the 1990s, the most frequent reason given for attending college had changed to
making a lot of money, outranking reasons such as becoming an authority in a field or
helping others in difficulty[citation needed]. This correlates with the rise of materialism[citation
needed]
, specifically the technological aspect: the increasing prevalence of compact disc
players, digital media, personal computers, and cellular telephones. Madeline Levine
criticized what she saw as a large change in American culture – “a shift away from values of
community, spirituality, and integrity, and toward competition, materialism and
disconnection.” [10]

2. Businesses have realized that wealthy consumers are the most attractive targets of marketing.
The upper class's tastes, lifestyles, and preferences trickle down to become the standard for
all consumers. The not so wealthy consumers can “purchase something new that will speak of
their place in the tradition of affluence”.[11] A consumer can have the instant gratification of
purchasing an expensive item to improve social status.
Emulation is also a core component of 21st century consumerism. As a general trend, regular
consumers seek to emulate those who are above them in the social hierarchy. The poor strive
to imitate the wealthy and the wealthy imitate celebrities and other icons. The celebrity
endorsement of products can be seen as evidence of the desire of modern consumers to
purchase products partly or solely to emulate people of higher social status. This purchasing
behavior may co-exist in the mind of a consumer with an image of oneself as being an
individualist.
Overview
An anticonsumerism stencil saying "Consuming consumes you".
Since consumerism began, various individuals and groups have consciously sought an
alternative lifestyle. These movements range on a spectrum from moderate "simple
living",[12] "eco-conscious shopping",[13], and "localvore"/"buying local"[14], to Freeganism on
the extreme end. Building on these movements, ecological economics is a discipline which
addresses the macro-economic, social and ecological implications of a primarily consumer-
driven economy.
In many critical contexts, consumerism is used to describe the tendency of people to identify
strongly with products or services they consume, especially those with commercial brand
names and perceived status-symbolism appeal, e.g. a luxury car, designer clothing, or
expensive jewelry. A culture that is permeated by consumerism can be referred to as a
consumer culture or a market culture.[15] Consumerism can take extreme forms such that
consumers sacrifice significant time and income not only to purchase but also to actively
support a certain firm or brand.[16]
Opponents of consumerism argue that many luxuries and unnecessary consumer products
may act as social mechanism allowing people to identify like-minded individuals through the
display of similar products, again utilizing aspects of status-symbolism to judge
socioeconomic status and social stratification. Some people believe relationships with a
product or brand name are substitutes for healthy human relationships lacking in societies,
and along with consumerism, create a cultural hegemony, and are part of a general process of
social control[17] in modern society. Other researchers argue that the struggle for symbols of
social distinction promoted by consumer culture creates narcissistic, hostile relations between
individuals, which can be criminogenic in locations where consumer products are difficult to
acquire, or where individuals simply see no limit to their acquisition.[18] Critics of
consumerism often point out that consumerist societies are more prone to damage the
environment, contribute to global warming and use up resources at a higher rate than other
societies.[19] Dr. Jorge Majfud says that "Trying to reduce environmental pollution without
reducing consumerism is like combatting drug trafficking without reducing the drug
addiction."[20]

3. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology[1][2][3] and social movement regarding concerns for
environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the
measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements.
Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural
environment, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution.[4] For this reason,
concepts such as a Land Ethic, Environmental Ethics, Biodiversity, Ecology and the Biophilia
hypothesis figure predominantly. At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations
between humanity and their broader organismic and biogeochemical milieu in such a way that all
the components are accorded a proper degree of respect. The exact nature of this balance is
controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in
practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by the color green,[5]
but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries and is a key tactic in the art
of Greenwashing.
Environmentalism as a social movement
Environmentalism denominates a social movement that seeks to influence the political
process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and
ecosystems. An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural
environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public
policy or individual behavior. This may include supporting practices such as informed
consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable energy, improved efficiencies
in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as Ecological
economics and renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life. In various
ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and environmental
organizations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.[6]
History
A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the
world, throughout history. For example, in Europe, King Edward I of England banned the
burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a
problem.[7][8] The fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was
acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air
pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the Industrial
Revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952.
Origins of the modern environmental movement
In Europe, the Industrial Revolution gave rise to modern environmental pollution as it is
generally understood today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense
quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large
volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human
waste.[9] The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of the British
Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric
acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. Environmentalism grew out

4. of the amenity movement, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and
worsening air and water pollution.
Environmentalism today
Environmentalism has also changed to deal with new issues such as global warming and
genetic engineering. Many youth of today's society have become more aware of the state of
the planet and are deeming themselves environmentalists. School Eco Clubs are now working
to create new ideals for the future through sustainable schools and other minor changes in
student lives like buying organic food, clothing and personal care items. In the future, many
of the jobs opening up will have environmentalist aspects.
Environmental movement
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting emissions from this power plant in
New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green
movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. In general terms,
environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and
restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and
individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the
movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights. Though the movement is
represented by a range of organizations, because of the inclusion of environmentalism in the
classroom curriculum,[28][29] the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is
common in other social movements (see green seniors).
Evangelical environmentalism
Main article: Evangelical environmentalism
Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States in which
some Evangelicals have emphasized biblical mandates concerning humanity's role as steward
and subsequent responsibility for the caretaking of Creation. While the movement has
focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its focus of addressing climate
action from a biblically grounded theological perspective. The Evangelical Climate Initiative
argues that human-induced climate change will have severe consequences and impact the
poor the hardest, and that God's mandate to Adam to care for the Garden of Eden also applies
to evangelicals today, and that it is therefore a moral obligation to work to mitigate climate
impacts and support communities in adapting to change.[31]
[edit] Preservation and conservation
Environmental preservation in the United States and other parts of the world, including
Australia, is viewed as the setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by
contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and
fishing, often to replace them with new human activities such as tourism and recreation.[32]
Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources.

5. [edit] Environmental organizations and conferences
Main article: List of environmental organizations
Reef doctor work station in Ifaty, Madagascar
Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be
government-run or private (NGO). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country.
Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus on
environmental concerns.
There are some volunteer organizations. For example Ecoworld and Paryawaran Sachetak
Samiti which is about the environment and is based in team work and volunteer work. Some
US environmental organizations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the
Environmental Defense Fund, specialize in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly
useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based National Wildlife Federation, the
Nature Conservancy, and The Wilderness Society, and global groups like the World Wide
Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in public
hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation. Statewide
nonprofit organizations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council often collaborate with these
national organizations and employ similar strategies. Smaller groups, including Wildlife
Conservation International, conduct research on endangered species and ecosystems. More
radical organizations, such as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have
more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is
devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs
and bringing issues into the public realm for debate, the underground Earth Liberation Front
engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals,
and other criminal acts. Such tactics are regarded as unusual within the movement, however.
On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out
of this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and the follow-
up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international
organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for
Environmental Cooperation (as part of NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA),
and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
[edit] Usage in popular culture
From at least 1946, American comics with an environmental, conservation or outdoor theme
have appeared; including Mark Trail, Smokey the Bear and Woodsy Owl.
[edit] Criticisms
Criticism of environmentalism tend to fall into two major categories: environmental
skepticism and anti-environmentalism. Environmental skeptics, such as Bjørn Lomborg (the
author of The Skeptical Environmentalist) dispute the claims of environmentalists, claiming
they are either inaccurate or exaggerated. Anti-environmentalists, on the other hand, accept
many of the claims made by environmentalists while simultaneously accepting that change is
inevitable, regardless of cause and speed. They do not deny the impact of humanity, but they

6. dispute the argument that humanity can kill the planet, citing life's several billion year history
as evidence that it is more resilient than many environmentalists realize.
References
1. ^ http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/ideology.html
2. ^ http://reason.com/archives/2002/02/01/debunking-green-myths
3. ^ Donald Gibson. Environmentalism: Ideology and Power. Nova Science Pub Inc. 2003
4. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environmentalism
5. ^ Cat Lincoln (Spring 2009). "Light, Dark and Bright Green Environmentalism". Green Daily.
Retrieved 2009-11-02.
6. ^ Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental
Movement (2005)
7. ^ David Urbinato (Summer 1994). "London's Historic 'Pea-Soupers'". United States
Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2006-08-02.
References
1. ^ Veblen, Thorstein (1899): The Theory of the Leisure Class: an economic study of
institutions, Dover Publications, Mineola, N.Y., 1994, ISBN 0-486-28062-4. (also available:
Project Gutenberg e-text)
2. ^ consumerism, answers.com
3. ^ "Consumerism". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Online. 2008.
4. ^ Ryan in Ritzer 2007, p. 701
5. ^ Ryan, Michael T. (2007) "consumption" in George Ritzer (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia
of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, 701-705