1. PRĀYAŚCITTA
Prāyaścitta (Sanskrit: ) is the Hindu term for atonement
and, along with vyavahāra (legal procedure) and ācāra
(customary law) makes up the dharmaśāstra. It is the word used
for the portion of Hindu law and the dharmaśāstra that has to do
with the expiation of sins. It "denotes an act or rite...intended for
the destruction of sin."[1] Though the sins it pertains to is often
punishable by the king as well as through legal proceedings, it is
considered a different sphere of the law.
EFFECTIVENESS
GOALS
Prāyaścittas are not necessary only for the cleansing of one's
own soul, but also for the satisfaction rest of society, as they are
not permitted to have social contact with one who has sinned and
not completed their penance.
INTENTIONAL SINS
It is disagreed upon within the smṛtis whether prāyaścittas are
applicable and capable purifying if the sins were done
intentionally. Manu says that some believe that passages from the
Vedas indicate that all sins, whether intentional or otherwise are
demolished by prāyaścitta, while his own belief is that
unintentional sins are expiated through Vedic recitation and
intentional sins can be obliterated by performing various
prāyaścittas.[3] At the same time, Yājñavalkya suggests that the
results of sins committed intentionally cannot be undone through
prāyaścittas. However, he continues with the thought that this will

2. cause social contact with the sinner to be permitted.[4] Alternative
interpretations of this verse suggest the opposite, and that the
purposeful perpetrator will be saved from Hell upon performing
penance, but will not be allowed contact with upstanding citizens.
There is also distinction made between a single occurrence of a
sin and repeated infractions.
CLASSIFICATION AND MEANS OF REDUCING SIN
The classification of sins varies between sources. Some state that
there are only two types of sin, that which will result in a loss of
caste (patanīya) and that which taints the soul, yet allows one to
remain a part of their caste (aśucikara). Other sources have
divided it between mortal sins (mahāpātakas), minor sins
(upapātakas), and those committed by ordinary sinners
(enasvins). The mortal sins are numbered five according to some
sources. These five are engaging in intercourse with the wife of a
guru, drinking spirits, killing a learned Brahmin, stealing from a
Brahmin, and associating with an outcaste. The minor sins
include abandoning the Vedic fires, atheism, earning a livelihood
through atheists, and the selling of soma, an important ritual plant.
In P.V Kane's well known work, the Literary History of the
Dharmaśāstras he outlines the means for reducing the
consequences of sin. It is important to stress that these means
are a sort of methodology for penance. The do not outline specific
penances for specific crimes. The literature on that topic is
extensive in its own right. The reasons for reducing sin are as
varied as the dharmasastric literature that they come from,
however, the most important ways include confession, repentance
(anutāpa), restraint of breath (Prāṇāyāma), austerity (Tapas),
sacrifice into fire (Homa), muttering of Vedic passages as prayers
(Japa), gifts (Dāna), fasting (Upavāsa), and pilgrimages
(Tīrthayavartra).
PROCEDURES FOR PENANCE

3. Laugākṣigṛha proscribes the procedures for all penances, while
others, like the Śankha and Madanapārijāta also provide
elaborate rules about undergoing procedures of prayascittas.."[7]
Some particular procedures a sinner must undergo take the form
of paring his nails, shaving his head, bathing with clay, cow dung,
and holy water, drinking clarified butter, and making a declaration
of performing the penance indicated by the assembly of the
learned men Brahmins, all on the day prior to commencing his
penance. On the next day, he is to bathe, perform Śrãddha and
Homa, and give gifts to the Brahmins and feed them. Also during
the time of prāyaścitta, the sinner must observe certain rules on
food and other matters.[8] This includes that the sinner refrain from
taking food at another's house, from sexual intercourse, from
speaking at an improper time, and from everything that might
cause him to feel strength or sexual passion. It is customary that
when undergoing a penance, the sinner begins with a mantra that
translates "O! Fire, lord of vrata! I shall perform a vrata." In the
same way, when one has finished his penance, he recites a
mantra that translates, "O! Fire, lord of vratas: I have performed
the vrata, I had the strength to do it, may it be propitious for
me.".." There are also particular virtues that should be practiced
while doing penance such as honesty. These are known as
yamas.
Two kinds of Prāyaścitta exist: one which is done openly, prakāś,
and one which is done secretly, rahasya. Many smŗtis lay down
rules about performing secret prāyaścittas. One reason a man
would perform a secret prāyaścitta is because no one but himself
knows about the sin he has committed. A general rule exists that
secret penances are meant for those who have consecrated the
Vedic fires, who are disciplined, old or learned, and that the open
penances are meant for other people. It is even said that women
and Śǔdras can perform secret penances because they too can
give gifts and prāṇāyāmas.

4. While some smṛtis prescribe the enactment of a penance
immediately as needed, some other place restrictions on the time
(i.e. the Prāyaścittattatva says that a penance should not
commence on the 8th or 14th tithi of the month). If one is in
mourning, he may also wait to perform penance until the period of
mourning has been completed.
TYPES OF PENANCE
PILGRIMAGES
Pilgrimages (tīrthayātrā) to a tīrtha, or holy place, are a part of
dharmaśāstra and can be considered part of prāyaścitta.
Pilgrimages were originally not very prominent within the early
smṛti texts, but become more popular at a later time.
The type of sin that may be expiated through pilgrimages is
referred to as anupātakas. Several sources say that the benefits
of pilgrimages are open to both men and women and people of all
four varnas. Some go even further to extend the rewards of
visiting a tīrtha to non-Aryans as well. However, some smṛtis also
call attention to the fact that doing one's duty as a householder is
more important than going on pilgrimages, and it is only in special
cases or once one has paid his Three Debts (to his parents, his
teacher, and the Vedas) that he should resort to pilgrimages.
The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is debated within the
smṛtis, with questions such as whether one should cut his hair
before a pilgrimage arising or whether a fast at the tīrtha is
required.[17] The mode of travel is also widely discussed, as to
whether one may reap any benefit from traveling in a conveyance.
The most widely accepted view appears to be that the greatest
austerity comes from traveling on foot, and that the use of a
conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise
impossible. A portion of the merit obtained from a pilgrimage can
also be gained vicariously, through the pilgrim thinking of another

5. while bathing, or an effigy in one's image being lowered into the
bath. By enabling others to go on pilgrimages, the benefactor also
vicariously reaps a portion of the merit.
VRATAS
The concept of vratas date back to the Ṛgveda. Many
commentators have tried to establish a definition for the word
vratas, and what exactly it pertains to. However, these
descriptions are varied. The general description used for vratas
as portrayed in the dharmaśāstra is that of the religious vow or
religious rite.[21] They generally have to do with restraint and
refraining from certain activities, though according to some
commentators, it may also be a positive vow (i.e. "I must do
this").[22] Vratas may be used for many different reasons. Like
pilgrimages, it can also be expiatory, placing it within the realm of
prāyaścitta, but it can also be used for other means, such as a
voluntary vow or the obligatory ones commonly practiced by
householders. Utsavas, or religious festivals, share some
elements with vratas. They may contain elements of are often
difficult to distinguish from the practice of vratas.
Vratas can consist of many different activities. Many vratas had to
do with the feeding of Brahmins, a very auspicious activity, as well
as giving to the poor and destitute. Other examples of vratas can
include fasting. The śmrtis go into great detail on the subject of
vratas,[24] discussing even the details pertaining to what type of
flowers should be used in worship.
Events such as death and birth, which can cause one to become
impure, prevents a practitioner from observing his vows. A vow
cannot be undertaken if one is impure. However, if one is in the
middle of a vrata when impurity comes over them, they may
continue with the vrata without any loss of merit, however there
are still activities a person observing vrata must avoid. It is
considered a grievous sin to abandon a vrata once one has

6. undertaken it.[26] Like pilgrimages, if one is unable to perform a
vrata, they may have a representative do it for them, though this
is only is the vow is obligatory or has to do with a special event.
One may not have a representative if the vow is undertaken out of
desire for something.
Any caste is able to expiate their sins through the use of vratas.
Women also are able to perform vratas, however, she must have
the permission of her father, husband, or son. Likewise, any caste
is able to expiate their sins through the use of vratas, though
some only pertain to a specific caste.
ŚĀNTIS
Śāntis are a form of appeasement done in order to avoid the
wrath of the gods, as well as other bad omens such as bad
dreams, the sounds made by unlucky birds, and the seizure by an
evil spirit.[30] All of the different śāntis for different occasions were
considered to be prāyaścitta. In Vedic times, the śānti could be as
simple as reciting a verse from the Vedas, though the use of
water was also recommended. In post-Vedic texts, the number of
situations requiring a śānti was expanded, and a massive amount
of literature was dedicated in to subject.
The śāntis are divvied into different groups. The first is adbhuta.
This relates to unusual instances, like earthquakes, eclipses, and
also the unusual omens, like a rainbow occurring at night. These
are signs that the gods are angry at an individual. These
adbhuras are then placed into one of seven different groups, each
which is related to a specific deity that must be appeased. The
śānti for these involve feeding and honoring Brahmins. The
second is called utpāta. Utpatas are omens that reveal the gods’
anger and foretell evil coming to all people. It is sometimes
defined as the reverse of the natural order. The final category is
nimitta. As opposed to the other two, which only foretell evil and

7. harm, nimitta can be signs for either good or ill. Nimitta generally
refers specifically to the throbbing of one's limbs.
PENANCE ACCORDING TO AGE
Prāyaścitta can vary according to the age and capacity of a
person. If a young boy commits a minor crime, they do not have
to undergo a penance, but an older male member of their family
should in their stead. If one is younger than five, they are
considered unable to commit a crime or sin, and therefore the
need for penance need not be addressed, though some texts
argue that this only applies minor infractions. Though the
particular ages vary between the different smṛtis, the penances
for boys below a certain age, men above a certain age, women,
and the ailing are reduced to a half or a quarter, depending on the
source. Also, when the penalty is death, women can be cleansed
by the cutting of a limb.
EVOLUTION OF PENANCES
Adjusting to new times, new penances were made. This is due to
the fact that the sages realized that the penances of the old smŗtis
were very harrowing and even involved the loss of life. In this
way, more humane and easier penances were created for more
modern times. These were known as pratyāmnāyas. Hārita
states, "brahmanas who have studied dharmaśāstra should
prescribe a penance appropriate to the age, the time and the
strength of the sinner, the penance being such that he may not
loss his life and yet may be purified; one should not prescribe an
observance that will cause great distress to the sinner."

8. OVERLAP WITH VYAVAHĀRA
There are times when prāyaścitta and legal punishment by the
king, which would be in the realm of vyavahāra, overlap. If one
does the prāyaścitta to expiate themselves from their sins,
depending on the gravity of their crime, they may still be punished
by the king. Sometimes, the punishment by the king was deemed
enough that penances were not needed, and the sins of the
perpetrator are eliminated. According to Manu, "Men that commit
sins and sins and are punished by the king become purified and
reach heaven like good men who perform meritous deeds."
However, some sources say that this is only the case when the
punishment would be death. In these cases, the punishment is
counted both in a legal sense and as prāyaścitta. This combining
of penance with legal procedure appears to make the prāyaścitta
more effective as penance ending in death can result in full
expiation even from intentional sins. If one does not make
preparations for performing prāyaścitta within a year of his crime,
his sin doubles and he must make twice the reparations, as in
paying twice the fines to the king and performing twice the
penance.[