Presentation given at Central Washington University's SOURCE 2016, based on my senior capstone thesis. Examines the social and ethical nature of climate change, the environmental and social contributions of the engaged Buddhist movement, and how this can contribute to a universal climate change ethic. Presentation created and delivered by James King.
Engaged Buddhism and a Universal Climate Change Ethic
1. James King| SOURCE 2016 | Central Washington University
Presentation on Senior Capstone Project (Undergraduate Thesis)
Advisors: Dr. Mark Auslander (Anth. & Museum Studies)
Dr. Jeffery Dippmann (Phil. & Religious Studies)
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND A
UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
http://muddywaterzen.blo
gspot.com/2011/03/politic
al-buddha-part-1-
engaged.html
2. • Abstract & Research Questions
• Introduction
• Methodology
• Chapter 1: The Ethics of Climate Change
• Chapter 2: Engaged Buddhism and the Environment
• Chapter 3: A Universal Climate Change Ethic
• Conclusions
• References
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Image Source: http://secularbuddhism.org/2015/04/07/should-secular-buddhists-be-engaged-buddhists-too/
3. • Anthropogenic climate change [ACC] has become one of the most pressing issues
of modernity, influencing a myriad of human spheres including foreign policy,
economics, politics, and more. Its’ complexity, in combination with social and
ethical factors, come together to produce a ‘perfect moral storm’. Through the use
of Buddhistic and political ecology analyses, and building on an Engaged Buddhist
foundation, a universal ethic is deduced. This ethic should be flexible enough to
be applicable to many environmental and social problems, yet specific enough to
provide proactive and useful insight into the unique nature of an issue. This dual
focus and adaptability makes this theory well suited for understanding and
effectively solving ACC issues while emphasizing the value of nature and human
life, promoting social justice, and preserving human security. The universality of
this ethic can allow for adaptability into a wide range of geographic and social
settings, making global application possible.
ABSTRACT
4. • 1. What ethical and social aspects inherent in issues of climate change have
prevented an effective global response, and why?
• 2. What ethical and social aspects may be assisting in climate change
action, and why?
• 3. What ethical and philosophical components of modern Engaged
Buddhism, if any, are relevant and practically applicable to the issues of
climate change on a global and local scale?
• 4. Can a ‘Universal Climate Change Ethic’ be constructed on which any
person from any culture, class, religion, location, and so on can agree? If
so, what can Engaged Buddhist ethics and philosophy contribute?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
5. • This thesis assessed a wide range of qualitative and quantitative data
relating to climate change, Buddhism, and environmental ethics.
• Primary and Secondary data analysis including:
• Climate change research, data, and ethnographic accounts,
• Buddhist texts and commentaries,
• Peer-reviewed journals on Buddhist ethics, sustainability, conservation, and other
topics,
• Ethical discourses, and
• Essay Anthologies.
METHODOLOGY
8. (Chakrabarti 2015)
Key Point: those most responsible for climate change often face less risk, have a
higher capacity to respond to climate change effects, or both.
- Creates inherent ethical problems
9. • This chapter examines the social and ethical characteristics which may be
present in anthropogenic climate change (ACC) issues. Mainly focusing
on:
• Human Security & Rights: potential to increase tensions and unrest
• Economics: economic and market models often ignore ethical components
• Responsibility: who has caused what and/or owes what to whom? who should assist
whom in ACC responses?
• Justice: socioeconomic, racial, and other groups may be affected unevenly.
CHAPTER 1:
THE ETHICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
11. • Problems of Assessment, Response, and Communication:
• Temporal Factors: Recognizing and understanding ACC trends
• Scientific Literacy: Translating ACC data to citizens, and into action
• Tragedy of the Commons: Issues of personal interest inhibit progress
• Risk Perception: Ways we understand, communicate, and respond to risk
• Structural Factors: Increased centralization/institutionalization of power, etc.
• Inter-Cultural Factors: Ways in which other cultures/worldviews impact
perceptions of ACC causes, effects, and subsequent responses
• “Whenever I hear about global warming it’s that there is a layer of dust up there. When the
sunlight hits the earth it can’t escape and so it affects the weather conditions. . . I try to
consider that all the volcanic activity has something to do with it too. . . I also considered it
when I heard aerosol sprays were one of the causes of global warming.” (Crate and Nuttall
2009:212-13)
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED IMPEDIMENTS
TO CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION
12. • Problems of Scale: Individualization vs Institutionalization
• Individualism: not inherently bad, but over-emphasis can lead to negatives, i.e.
narcissism, selfishness, etc.
• Buddhist Perspective- “In a society that puts the interests of any one individual above those of
the community, social problems cannot be effectively addressed because the context of the
problems is the way society operates as a whole” - Bhikkhu Buddhadasa (1986:34).
• “Individualization of Responsibility” (Maniates 2001:33): concept that saving the environment
is on individuals to ‘go green’.
• Institutionalization: trend in society to centralize and consolidate (Rootes 1999).
• Can lead to oversimplification of issues, conflicts of interest, etc.
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED IMPEDIMENTS
TO CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION
13. • ‘Panacea’ Problems: trend to reduce complex problems into simple
fix-all solutions (Ostrom and Cox 2010)
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED IMPEDIMENTS
TO CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION
(Gutt 2015)
Example:
Ocean Stressors
Alternative:
‘Panarchy’
(Garmestani &
Benson 2013)
14. • Problems of a Capitalist Response: Political Ecology and ACC
• Capitalism is being criticized for contributing to environmental, social, and other harms
around the world
• Second Contradiction of Capitalism: the drive for capital accumulation encourages (1)
over-extraction of resources, and (2) over-pollution of the environment, undermining
the capitalist system itself
• Buddhist Perspective: Economies should have three goals (Sivaraksa 1986):
• 1. Improve health and income for all people,
• 2. Economic stability, and
• 3. Fair distribution of fruits of production
• A ‘New Capitalism’: Natural Capitalism (Hawkens, Lovins and Lovins 2000)
• Solution = reform of capitalism to reflect value and importance of ‘natural capital’
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED IMPEDIMENTS
TO CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION
16. • The ‘No Regret’ Approach: Some responses will provide co-benefits to
people and nature (Chakrabarti 2015).
• Human Beings as Agents of Change (Diamond 2015).
• Humans are cause of ACC, so we are also large part of solution
• Technology & know-how to solve issues is already available (Pacala and Socolow
2004).
• Opportunities for Local Participation and Indigenous Sovereignty:
• Traditional Ecological Knowledge [TEK], value of local individuals & communities
knowledge to science and problem solving. (Barnes and Dove 2015)
• Opportunities for cooperation and relationship-building
• Increasing Energy Security (Pataki and Vilsack 2008).
• Improved infrastructure, greater efficiency, provides jobs, etc.
PRESENT ETHICAL POTENTIAL
17. • “With its’ philosophical insight into the interconnectedness and
thoroughgoing interdependence of all conditioned things, with its thesis that
happiness is to be found through the restraint of desire in a life of
contentment rather than through the proliferation of desire, with its goal of
loving-kindness for all beings, Buddhism provides all the essential elements
for a relationship with the natural world characterized by respect, care, and
compassion.”– Bhikkhu Bodhi (Selin 2003:359).
CHAPTER 2:
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
https://asenauke.files.wordpre
ss.com/2015/09/climatemarch
1.jpg?w=640
19. • Siddhartha Gautama: born around 563 BCE in India
• Developed Buddhist systems in response to already present philosophical and
spiritual systems (Carrithers 2001), [Theravada ’doctrine of the elders’]
• Spread Into Asia: by the 5th century CE, becoming well established in
China, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, etc.
• Development of Mahayana Buddhism [‘greater vehicle’]
• Increased emphasis on role and potential of lay followers (Keown 1996).
• Buddhism in the West: grown immensely during & since 20th century
(Prebish and Baumann 2002)
• Undergone fascinating developments, especially in social engagement
• Engaged Buddhism: Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, H.H. The Dalai Lama, etc.
• “The general pattern and belief of practice that has come to be called ‘engaged Buddhism’ is
unprecedented, and thus tantamount to a new chapter in the history of the tradition. As a style of
ethical practice, engaged Buddhism may be seen as a new paradigm of Buddhist liberation.”(Gowans
2015:234).
A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF BUDDHISM
20. • “At its broadest definition socially engaged Buddhism extends across public
engagement in caring and service, social and environmental protest and analysis,
nonviolence as a creative way of overcoming conflict, and ‘right livelihood’ and
similar initiatives toward a socially just and ecologically sustainable society.” (Jones
2003:173).
ENGAGED BUDDHISM:
Sulak Sivaraksa
Thich Nhat Hanh
The 14th Dalai Lama
21.
22. • Universally accepted Buddhist principles:
• 1. A commitment to monasticism
• 2. A shared, traditional set of meditations
• 3. A shared goal of enlightenment
• 4. All schools since the Buddha have built on previous schools, or “a subtle
adaptation of pre-existing ideas (Conze 1980:16).
• The Stages of Development of Engaged Buddhism:
• 1. Theravada [original] Buddhism
• 2. Mahayana: ‘greater vehicle’
• 3. Madhyamaka: ‘The Middle Way’
• 4. Hua-yan: the ‘Flower Garland’ school.
• 5. Contemporary Engaged Buddhism
BUDDHIST DOCTRINE:
A BRIEF ANALYSIS
23. • A number of philosophical and ethical components can be identified
which support, and even mandate environmentalism:
• 1. The Sangha: Community; Buddhist, neighbors, friends, etc. (Ishii 1986)
• 2. Mindfulness: being aware of surroundings, state of mind, etc.
• 3. Human Place in Nature: Part of, not separate from nature: “From the Buddhist
point of view, all living beings – that is, all beings with feelings, experiences, and
sensations – are considered equal.” (Dalai Lama 2009:154)
• 4. Value of Life: Buddhism tends to value all sentient beings and, in many traditions,
the non-sentient environment (Wawrytko and Wei-hsun Fu 1991).
• 5. The Middle Way: avoiding extremes, preferring balance & moderation
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
25. • Environmental components of engaged Buddhism, cont.
• 6. Moderation and Simplicity: “Buddhism shows ways to make people happy by
utilizing the least amount of matter and energy while aiming at happiness and
social correctness.” (Kamdee 1993:18)
• Example: Monastic lifestyle
• 7. Sila [morality]: Five Precepts: Refrain from (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual
misconduct, (4) false speech, and (5) intoxicants (Sivaraksa 1988)
• Ethics are intention-based, existing on a gradation (Harvey 2007)
• 8. Pratityasamutpada: ‘Dependent Origination’: Interdependence: “When that
exists, this comes to be; on the arising of that, this arises. When that does not
exist, this does not come to be; on the cessation of that, this ceases.” – Majjhima
Nikaya I (Batchelor and Brown 1992:10)
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
26. • Environmental components of engaged Buddhism, cont.
• 9. Compassion and the Bodhisattva Ideal:
• A. Karuna: ‘Compassion’: To suffer with, and to desire to alleviate that suffering (key: ACTIVE)
• Separates compassion from empathy, which is passive not requiring action
• “Buddhists – and perhaps others – believe that this can be developed to such a degree that not only does our
compassion arise without any effort, but it is unconditional, undifferentiated, and universal in scope.” (Dalai
Lama 1999:123)
• B. Bodhisattvas: beings who dedicate themselves to relieving suffering in the world, wherever it exists
(Wawrytko and Wei-hsun Fu 1991).
• Modern Relevance: “It is my profound belief that the idea of a bodhisattva is better adapted to today’s world
than many other religious ideas. The experience of a bodhisattva, this power of compassion that we discover
constantly abiding within our otherwise inconstant nature, is no doubt one of the main factors that is attracting
more and more interest in Buddhism.” (Dalai Lama 2009:220)
• C. Bodhicitta / Tathagatagharba: ‘Buddha-mind’, idea that all beings contain Buddha-nature, and have
the potential to become a buddha.
• ‘Ecosattva’: a bodhisattva who “cares deeply about all beings and the health of the planet and is willing to take
action after action to help all beings thrive.” (Kaza 2008:13)
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
27. Avalokiteshvara:
Chinese: Guan-yin
-Bodhisattva of Compassion
-Thousands of arms
- Many faces
- Dalai Lama: in Tibetan
tradition, is the physical
incarnation (14th in the line)
http://www.exoticindia.com/buddha/thousand_ar
med_avalokiteshvara__the_bodhisattva_tn28.jpg
29. • Environmental components of engaged Buddhism, cont.
• 10. Universal Responsibility: individual is the source of all responsibility
• (Cooper and James 2005:135-136)
• Dalai Lama: “Each one of us is responsible for reducing the negative potential of every
situation we have to face. If we wish to change the world, first we must improve and transform
ourselves.” (2009:169-70)
• 11. Upaya: ‘Skillful Means’: ability of the Buddha to “adapt his message to the context in
which it was delivered.” (Keown 2005:18)
• Parable of the father, his children, and the burning house (Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai 1966)
• A father had gone into town to visit the market and pick up supplies, who had left his children at home.
When he returned home, he saw that a fire had started and the house was ablaze. His children were still
inside the house, not noticing the fire as they were caught up in their playing. The father yelled for the
children to come out immediately, but they ignored his calls. The father, knowing his children, yelled
“children I’ve brought you a toy from the market come out now and see it!”. The children heard this and
immediately ran out of the house and were saved from the fire.
• Actions, teachings, moral principles, etc. are tools: good adaptability = skillful use of tools
ENGAGED BUDDHISM AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
30. • The Search for a Universal Ethic:
• “And so it is not unreasonable to expect nor surprising to find that among all men, amid all
the historically developed cultural diversity, there is not only a nuclear family and some
extended kinship, work and dancing, art and religion – but also morality. And morality
includes common structural patterns, common mechanisms, and, where social institutions
are parallel, some detailed similarity in content.” (Edel and Edel 1968:31)
• Moral Relativism: values, ethics and moral
codes will vary depending on the cultural
context in which they are found.
• Situational Ethics: “One situation or context is
always slightly different from another. Hence,
what is right in one situation might be
inappropriate in another context.”
(Fox 2001: 14)
CHAPTER 3:
A UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
31. • The Need for a Universal Ethic:
• Globalization and Interconnectivity: Increasing interactions and complexity of
relationships is increasing intercultural encounters.
• Ethical Principles are Unavoidable: Ethics are involved in every action we take, no
matter how small or seemingly mundane (Shea and Sitter 1989)
• Allows for meaningful and proactive discourse on ethical principles and issues
including justice, responsibility, compassion, and so on.
• Key Point: ethical principles influence behavior, but do not fully determine
it.
CHAPTER 3:
A UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
33. • Universal Agreement: Some principles are more ‘universal’ than others, and some
may require only partial universality
• Example: Differences in social structure.
• Example: Sanctity of life.
• Not all components are required for cooperation.
• Many of the components overlap
• Acknowledging respect for life may be enough, even if other concepts are rejected
• Some Components are Already Well Accepted: concepts such as justice, respect
for life, and responsibility for actions are already present to some extent
CHAPTER 3:
A UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
34. • A Universal Climate Change Ethic:
• 1. Interdependence: Ecology and Buddhism emphasize this: “Ecology and Buddhism
are both about the interdependence of all forms of existence, the former from a
scientific view, the latter in the existential and experiential sense.” (Jones 2003:170).
• 2. Compassion: “a feeling of deep sympathy and sorrow for another who is stricken
by misfortune, accompanied by a strong desire to alleviate the suffering.”
(Dictionary.com 2016)
• 3. Universal Responsibility:(a) considering the ends of the particular action, (b)
considering the conditions necessary, and (c) considering the consequences of
success (Shea and Sitter 1989)
• 4. Skillful Means: Specificity and unique characteristics cannot be ignored.
CHAPTER 3:
A UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
35. • A Universal Climate Change Ethic:
• 5. Respect for Life: Recognizing the value of, and roles filled by, all organisms and the
habitats they compose (Kleinig 1991).
• 6. Equality and Justice: Emphasizing that all humans are equal in their value, and must
be treated with dignity and respect.
• Fairness: “the foundational idea that we should avoid bias in our evaluations, take note of the
interests and concerns of others and – particularly – try to avoid being influenced by our own
vested interests or eccentricities.” (Wolfson 2015:41).
• 7. Human Security: Ethical imperative to respond to and prepare for ACC in ways that
protects human well-being and stability.
• Impacts on human health, nation stability, resources [food, water, etc.], all of which can
exacerbate or cause conflict & warfare (Homer-Dixon and Blitt 1998).
• 8: Intelligent Consumption: Engaging in consumption patterns in ways which
incorporate the other 7 principles of this ethic.
• Acknowledging effects on social and environmental well-being, etc.
CHAPTER 3:
A UNIVERSAL CLIMATE CHANGE ETHIC
37. • 1. Consideration of social & ethical characteristics of ACC must continue, and should grow in
emphasis.
• 2. The role of science and scientists can benefit from deeper exploration, including what role
scientists should take (disinterested observer, active participant, etc.)
• 3. The search for, and relevance of a universal ethic is valid, and has potential for future benefits in
ACC and other issues requiring large-scale human input and cooperation.
• 4. Eastern worldviews and philosophical frameworks can provide insights and allow for unique &
innovative solutions.
• These approaches may be better suited to ACC issues, where connections & relationships become as important as
individual components.
• Will not solve the problems. But may provide a cogent tool in our arsenal
• 5. Application, effectiveness, and further development of this and other climate change ethics
warrants continued study & experimentation.
• 6. Locally generated, supported, and enacted responses likely provide the most effective courses of
action:
• Encourages local stewardship by knowledgeable and concerned citizens
• Provides validity to local action and increase likelihood of consent and support
• Allows for the unique values, talents, and challenges of a community to influence action
CONCLUSIONS:
38. • Barnes, Jessica (Ed.) and Dove, Michael R. (Ed.). 2015. Climate Cultures: Anthropological Perspectives on Climate Change. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT.
• Batchelor, Martine (Ed.) and Brown, Kerry (Ed.). 1992. Buddhism and Ecology. Cassell Publishers Limited. New York, NY.
• Buddhadasa, Bhikkhu. 1986. Dhammic Socialism. Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development. Bangkok, Thailand.
• Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai. 1966. The Teachings of Buddha. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai (Buddhist Promoting Foundation). Kosaido Printing Co. Tokyo, Japan.
• Carrithers, Michael. 2001. The Buddha: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.
• Chakrabarti, P.G. Dhar (Ed.). 2015. Global Sustainable Development Report 2015: Climate Change and Sustainable Development, Assessing Progress of Regions and Countries. The Energy and Resources Institute. Oxford University Press. New Delhi, India.
• Conze, Edward. 1980. A Short History of Buddhism. George Allen & Unwin. Boston, MA.
• Cooper, David E. and James, Simon P. 2005. Buddhism, Virtue, and Environment. Ashgate Publishing Limited. Burlington, VT.
• Crate, Susan A. (Ed.) and Nuttall, Mark (Ed.). Anthropology and Climate Change: From Encounters to Actions. Left Coast Press. Walnut Creek, CA.
• Czarnezki, Jason J. 2011. Everyday Environmentalism: Law, Nature, and Individual Behavior. Environmental Law Institute Press. Washington, D.C.
• Dalai Lama, H.H. The. 1999. Ethics for the New Millennium. Riverhead Books. New York, NY.
• Dalai Lama, H.H. The. 2009. The Dalai Lama’s Little Book of Inner Peace. Hampton Roads Publishing Company. Charlottesville, VA.
• Diamond, Jared. 2005. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking Penguin. New York, NY.
• Dictionary.com. 2016. Compassion. Dictionary.com. Retrieved online 4/12/16 from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/compassion
• Edel, May and Edel, Abraham. 1968. Anthropology and Ethics: The Quest for Moral Understanding. The Press of Case Western Reserve University. Cleveland, OH.
• Fox, Michael W. 2001. Bringing Life to Ethics: Global Bioethics for a Humane Society. State University of New York Press. Albany, NY.
• Garmestani, Ahjond S. and Benson, M. H. 2013. A framework for resilience-based governance of social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 18(1): 9.
• Godrej, Dinyar. 2006. The No-Nonsense Guide to Climate Change. New Internationalist Publications. Oxford, U.K.
• Gowans, Christopher W. 2015. Buddhist Moral Philosophy: An Introduction. Routledge. New York, NY.
• Gutt, Julian et al. 2015. Southern ocean ecosystem under multiple climate stresses - an integrated circumpolar assessment. Global Change Biology 21. 1434-1453.
• Hawken, Paul, Lovins, Amory and Lovins, L. Hunter. 2000. Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution. Little, Brown and Company. New York, NY.
REFERENCES
39. • Harvey, Peter. 2007. Avoiding unintended harm to the environment and the Buddhist ethic of intention. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 14.
• Homer-Dixon, Thomas (Ed.) and Blitt, Jessica (Ed.). 1998. Ecoviolence: Links Among Environment, Population, and Security. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. New York, NY.
• Ishii, Yoneo. 1986. Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu, HI.
• Jones, Ken. 2003. The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. Wisdom Publications. Boston, MA.
• Kamdee, Duan. 1993. Buddhist Concepts in Preserving the Environment. 5th International Conference on Thai Studies. London, U.K.
• Kaza, Stephanie. 2008. Mindfully Green: A Personal and Spiritual Guide to Whole Earth Thinking. Shambhala Publications. Boston, MA.
• Keown, Damien. 1996. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.
• Keown, Damien. 2005. Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. New York, NY.
• Kleinig, John. 1991. Valuing Life. Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ.
• Maniates, Michael F. 2001. Individualization: plant a tree, buy a bike, save the world?. Global Environmental Politics 1(3). 31-52.
• Ostrom, Elinor and Cox, Michael. 2010. Moving beyond panaceas: a multi-tiered diagnostic approach for social-ecological analysis. Environmental Conservation 37(4). 451-463.
• Pacala, S. and Socolow, R. 2004. Stabilization wedges: solving the climate problem for the next 50 years with current technologies. Science (305). 968-971. August 13, 2004.
• Pataki, George R. (Chair) and Vilsack, Thomas J. (Chair). 2008. Confronting Climate Change: A Strategy for U.S. Foreign Policy. Report of an Independent Task Force. Council on Foreign Relations. New York, NY.
• Rootes, Christopher (Ed.). 1999. Environmental Movements: Local, National and Global. Frank Cass. Portland, OR.
• Selin, Helaine (Ed.) 2003. Nature Aross Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in Non Western Cultures. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Norwell, MA.
• Shea, William R. (Ed.) and Sitter, Beat (Ed.). 1989. Scientists and Their Responsibility. Watson Publishing International. Canton, MA.
• Sivaraksa, Sulak. 1988. A Socially Engaged Buddhism. Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development. Bangkok, Thailand.
• Wawrytko, Sandra (Ed.) and Wei-hsun Fu, Charles (Ed.). 1991. Buddhist Ethics and Modern Society: An International Symposium. Freenwood Press. Westport, CT.
REFERENCES
Editor's Notes
-Abstract & Research Questions
-Introduction
-Methodology
-Chapter 1: The Ethics of Climate Change
-Chapter 2: Engaged Buddhism and the Environment
-Chapter 3: A Universal Climate Change Ethic
-Conclusions
-References
Anthropogenic climate change [ACC] has become one of the most pressing issues of modernity, influencing a myriad of human spheres including foreign policy, economics, politics, and more. Its’ complexity, in combination with social and ethical factors, come together to produce a ‘perfect moral storm’. Through the use of Buddhistic and political ecology analyses, and building on an Engaged Buddhist foundation, a universal ethic is deduced. This ethic should be flexible enough to be applicable to many environmental and social problems, yet specific enough to provide proactive and useful insight into the unique nature of an issue. This dual focus and adaptability makes this theory well suited for understanding and effectively solving ACC issues while emphasizing the value of nature and human life, promoting social justice, and preserving human security. The universality of this ethic can allow for adaptability into a wide range of geographic and social settings, making global application possible.
1. What ethical and social aspects inherent in issues of climate change have prevented an effective global response, and why?
2. What ethical and social aspects may be assisting in climate change action, and why?
3. What ethical and philosophical components of modern Engaged Buddhism, if any, are relevant and practically applicable to the issues of climate change on a global and local scale?
4. Can a ‘Universal Climate Change Ethic’ be constructed on which any person from any culture, class, religion, location, and so on can agree? If so, what can Engaged Buddhist ethics and philosophy contribute?
This thesis assessed a wide range of qualitative and quantitative data relating to climate change, Buddhism, and environmental ethics.
Secondary data analysis including:
Climate change research, data, and ethnographic accounts,
Buddhist texts and commentaries,
Peer-reviewed journals on Buddhist ethics, sustainability, conservation, and other topics,
Ethical discourses, and
Essay Anthologies.
This map ranks countries based on current responsibility for climate change, according to the authors. Most responsible countries are red, with least responsible countries in green.
This is the ranking of countries based on the estimated risk posed by climate change. Most vulnerable countries are in red, with those facing the least potential risk in green.
Ranking of countries based on their capacity to adapt to climate change. Countries with the greatest capacity for response are in green, with the countries least suited to adapt in red.
Compared with the map of ranking on responsibility, there is a high degree of inversion. In other words, those most responsible for climate change often face less risk, have a higher capacity to respond to climate change effects, or both.
This chapter examines the social and ethical characteristics which may be present in anthropogenic climate change (ACC) issues. Mainly focusing on:
Human Security & Rights: potential to increase tensions and unrest
Economics: economic and market models often ignore ethical components
Responsibility: who has caused what and/or owes what to whom? who should assist whom in ACC responses?
Justice: socioeconomic, racial, and other groups may be affected unevenly.
This graphic illustrates how climate change effects can lead to instability and conflict as resources become more few or change their geographic distribution.
Problems of Assessment, Response, and Communication:
Temporal Factors: Recognizing and understanding ACC trends, which often take the form of ‘creeping normalcy’, difficult to observe trends as they occur, changes build up over time.
Scientific Literacy: Translating ACC data to citizens, and into action: how do we communicate the complex scientific data, processes, and cycles to individuals in a way that is meaningful & inspiring.
Tragedy of the Commons: Issues of personal interest inhibit progress
Risk Perception: Ways we understand, communicate, and respond to risk: psychological factors, Naomi Klein’s the shock doctrine: risk and crisis can often result in poor decision making.
Structural Factors: Increased centralization/institutionalization of power: many trends are resisting this centralization: the rise of grassroots movements, decentralized energy, etc.
Inter-Cultural Factors: affect the way climate change is perceived, and thus the ways people respond to it.
“Whenever I hear about global warming it’s that there is a layer of dust up there. When the sunlight hits the earth it can’t escape and so it affects the weather conditions. . . I try to consider that all the volcanic activity has something to do with it too. . . I also considered it when I heard aerosol sprays were one of the causes of global warming.” (Crate and Nuttall 2009:212-13)
Problems of Scale: Individualization vs Institutionalization
Individualism: emphasized in Western cultures, not inherently bad in itself, but even in American society, over-individualism can be negative: i.e. narcissism, etc.
Buddhist Perspective: Buddhist Perspective: “In a society that puts the interests of any one individual above those of the community, social problems cannot be effectively addressed because the context of the problems is the way society operates as a whole” – Bhikkhu Buddhadasa (1986:34)
Institutionalization: trend in society, including environmental movements, to centralize and consolidate
-Can lead to oversimplification of issues, conflicts of interest, external pressures (government, industry, etc.), over-expanding focus, etc.
‘Panacea’ Problems: trend to reduce highly complex problems into simple, fix-all policies and solutions. This graphic is an attempt to visualize how ocean stressors affect their surroundings, and other cycles. Highly complex with many interrelated components.
Panarchy Approach: a framework for understanding complex systems which views the system as an aggregate of multiple ‘cycles’, less hierarchical since change can occur at any level and impact the rest of the system.
Problems of a Capitalist Response: Political Ecology and ACC - Increasingly, capitalism is being criticized for contributing to environmental, social, and other harms around the world especially in regards to consumption and consumerism as well as widespread income inequality.
- Second Contradiction of Capitalism: the drive for capital accumulation encourages (1) over-extraction of resources, and (2) over-pollution of the environment, undermining the capitalist system itself
- Buddhist Perspective: Economies should have three goals (Sivaraksa 1986):
1. Improve health and income for all people,
2. Economic stability, and
3. Fair distribution of fruits of production
- A ‘New Capitalism’: Natural Capitalism Solutions to lie in a reform of capitalism, specifically by recognizing and emphasizing natural capital, or goods and services provided by the environment. Essentially, recognizing that our economic well-being ultimately depends on the well-being of natural systems.
Map relating overall resource consumption per capita (represented by size distortion: larger countries, more consumption) while the color relates to ecological deficit. Countries in red consume more than their resources supply, while countries in green are ecological creditors. This doesn’t mean they are sustainable, it really only means that they tend to export more natural goods than they consume internally.
The ‘No Regret’ Approach: Many effects of responding to ACC will provide a number of co-benefits to people and nature
Human Beings as Agents of Change: While we have caused many of the issues facing us, this means we are also in the best position to address and solve them.
Opportunites for Local Participation and Indigenous Sovereignty:
Traditional Ecological Knowledge [TEK], value of local individuals & communities knowledge to science and problem solving.
Can allow communities and localities to better develop economically, culturally, and environmentally.
Opportunities for cooperation and relationship-building
Increasing Energy Security many co-benefits will result in improved energy infrastructure, greater efficiency, provide job, etc.
“With its’ philosophical insight into the interconnectedness and thoroughgoing interdependence of all conditioned things, with its thesis that happiness is to be found through the restraint of desire in a life of contentment rather than through the proliferation of desire, with its goal of loving-kindness for all beings, Buddhism provides all the essential elements for a relationship with the natural world characterized by respect, care, and compassion.” – Bhikkhu Bodhi
Graphic illustrating the different ‘spheres’ of engaged Buddhism.
Upper left, caring for the earth and one’s environment.
Upper right, embracing family, essentially caring for the home and loved ones.
Lower left. Participating in politics, can encompass a wide range of politically motivated activities including voting, protesting, contributing to political thought and discourse, encouraging (or protesting) social values, etc.
- Lower right, working with others. Again encompasses a huge range of social participation including helping the needy, cleaning up one’s neighborhood, or letting your neighbor use your lawnmower.
Siddhartha Gautama: born around 563 BCE in India
Developed Buddhist systems in response to already present philosophical and spiritual systems [Theravada- doctrine of the elders, Hinaya ‘lesser vehicle’]
Spread Into Asia: by the 5th century CE, becoming well established in China, Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, etc.
Development of Mahayana Buddhism [‘greater vehicle’]
Increased emphasis on role and potential of lay followers [non-monastics]
Buddhism in the West: grown immensely during & since 20th century (Prebish and Baumann 2002)
Undergone fascinating developments, especially in social engagement
Engaged Buddhism: Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, H.H. The Dalai Lama, etc.
- Engaged Buddhism new chapter of Buddhism: ““The general pattern and belief of practice that has come to be called ‘engaged Buddhism’ is unprecedented, and thus tantamount to a new chapter in the history of the tradition. As a style of ethical practice, engaged Buddhism may be seen as a new paradigm of Buddhist liberation.” Christopher Gowans
“At its broadest definition socially engaged Buddhism extends across public engagement in caring and service, social and environmental protest and analysis, nonviolence as a creative way of overcoming conflict, and ‘right livelihood’ and similar initiatives toward a socially just and ecologically sustainable society.” ( Ken Jones 2003:173).
Sulak Sivaraksa: Thai political and social thinker, and lay-Buddhist.
Thich Nhat Hanh: Vietnamese Zen Buddhist Monk, began work during Vietnam War, was exiled. Now resides in France where he runs the Plum Village Monastery.
His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama: Tibetan Buddhist leader, exiled from Tibet during Chinese occupation in 1950’s. Now resides in Dharamsala, India where he teaches, travels, writes, etc.
Some examples of the wide range of engaged Buddhist groups and organizations which have emerged in the past 15-30 years, one of the largest being the International Network of Engaged Buddhists.
Universally accepted Buddhist principles:
1. A commitment to monasticism
2. A shared, traditional set of meditations
3. A shared goal of enlightenment, though definitions of what this is, and how to reach it can vary widely.
4. All schools since the Buddha have built on previous schools, or “a subtle adaptation of pre-existing ideas (Conze 1980:16).
The Stages of Development of Engaged Buddhism:
1. Hinayana/ Theravada [original] Buddhism : emphasis on monastic salvation, adherence to original texts, etc.
2. Mahayana: ‘greater vehicle’ : opening way for laypeople, major doctrine is the bodhisattva path, and bodhicitta (buddha mind)
3. Madhyamaka: ‘The Middle Way’ : emphasizing doctrine of sunyata or emptiness, idea that everything is dependent on other things for existence.
4. Hua-yan: the ‘Flower Garland’ school. Emerged in China, emphasis on interdependence of phenomena
5. Contemporary Engaged Buddhism
Key Point: Buddhism builds on previous schools, occurs in developmental progression of stages.
A number of philosophical and ethical components can be identified which support, and even mandate environmentalism:
1. The Sangha: Community; Buddhist, neighbors, friends, etc. (Ishii 1986)
2. Mindfulness: being aware of surroundings, state of mind, etc.
3. Human Place in Nature: “From the Buddhist point of view, all living beings – that is, all beings with feelings, experiences, and sensations – are considered equal.” (Dalai Lama 2009:154)
4. Value of Life: Buddhism tends to value all sentient beings and, in many traditions, the non-sentient environment (Wawrytko and Wei-hsun Fu 1991).
5. The Middle Way: not synonymous with Madhyamaka, this doctrinally refers to avoiding extremes.
Buddhist tree ordination: Thai government has grown increasingly lax on forest policy, as well as other environmental policies. Thai Buddhist monks have always had a strong connection with the forest, and have taken it upon themselves to act to fight deforestation. They petition the government on a regular basis, educate their communities on the negative effects and why forests are important, and they symbolically ordain the trees as monks in order to signify that the trees have moral standing.
- Common for monks to protect large old trees, as well as occasionally smaller trees in forests which are being threatened by logging and other interests.
Environmental components of engaged Buddhism, cont.
6. Moderation and Simplicity: As exemplified through the life of the monk, emphasis on simple living and that a moderate lifestyle of self-control is the greatest path to happiness “Buddhism shows ways to make people happy by utilizing the least amount of matter and energy while aiming at happiness and social correctness.” (Kamdee 1993:18)
7. Sila [morality]: Five Precepts: refrain from (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual misconduct, (4) false speech, and (5) intoxicants (Sivaraksa 1988)
Ethics are intentionally-based, existing on somewhat of a gradation [the more intentional the act, the more severe the punishment]
8. Interdependence: “When that exists, this comes to be; on the arising of that, this arises. When that does not exist, this does not come to be; on the cessation of that, this ceases.” – Majjhima Nikaya I (Batchelor and Brown 1992:10)
9. Compassion and the Bodhisattva Ideal:
Compassion: means to suffer with, and desire to alleviate the suffering. Goes beyond passive observation or empathy, requires an active component.
- “Buddhists – and perhaps others – believe that this can be developed to such a degree that not only does our compassion arise without any effort, but it is unconditional, undifferentiated, and universal in scope.”
B. Bodhisattvas: beings who dedicate themselves to relieving suffering in the world, wherever it exists (Wawrytko and Wei-hsun Fu 1991).
These Buddhists vow to forego enlightenment, and to continue the cycle of rebirth until all suffering has been eradicated and all sentient beings have been ‘saved’.
C. Bodhicitta / Tathagatagharba: ‘Buddha-mind’, idea that all beings contain Buddha-nature, providing potential to become a buddha.
Thus bodhisattvas aim to water this inner ‘buddha-seed’, and help beings to nurture what they already possess.
“It is my profound belief that the idea of a bodhisattva is better adapted to today’s world than many other religious ideas. The experience of a bodhisattva, this power of compassion that we discover constantly abiding within our otherwise inconstant nature, is no doubt one of the main factors that is attracting more and more interest in Buddhism.”
‘Ecosattva’: a bodhisattva who “cares deeply about all beings and the health of the planet and is willing to take action after action to help all beings thrive.” (Stephanie Kaza 2008:13)
Avalokiteshvara: also known as Guan-yin or Kuanyin in China, Chenrezig in Tibet.
- Often portrayed with thousands of arms extending in all directions. The arms will sometimes be bearing items including wheels, medicine, water, seeds, tools, and other items which serve to reduce the suffering of mankind. Really he can wield anything which can make human life more enjoyable. - Can be portrayed with many faces, facing in all directions, representing his dedication to seeking out and curing suffering wherever it exists.
In Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is believed to be the physical incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. The current Dalai Lama is the 14th in the line of incarnations.
also considered the protector of Tibet.
Chinese statue of female Guanyin, notice the objects in her hands, and the many faces looking in all directions.
10. Universal Responsibility: concept which views the individual as the ultimate source of responsibility, with duties to sentient and non-sentient beings and both living and non-living environments
“Responsibleness therefore denotes a ‘pro-active’ stance on environmental issues. Good Buddhists, one supposes, should be responsible, which means, in part, that they should not just be passive observers of the environmental ills of the world, but should make at least some efforts to resolve them.” (Cooper and James 2005: 135-136)
Dalai Lama: “Each one of us is responsible for reducing the negative potential of every situation we have to face. If we wish to change the world, first we must improve and transform ourselves.” (2009:169-70)
11. Upaya: ‘Skillful Means’: ability of the Buddha and subsequent teachers to “adapt his message to the context in which it was delivered.”
- Parable of the father, his children, and the burning house: A father had gone into town to visit the market and pick up supplies, who had left his children at home. When he returned home, he saw that a fire had started and the house was ablaze. His children were still inside the house, not noticing the fire as they were caught up in their playing. The father yelled for the children to come out immediately, but they ignored his calls. The father, knowing his children, yelled “children I’ve brought you a toy from the market come out now and see it!”. The children heard this and immediately ran out of the house and were saved from the fire.
- In this situation we are the children, the burning house is living in ignorance of the true nature of reality, and the father represents the Buddha
The Search for a Universal Ethic:
“And so it is not unreasonable to expect nor surprising to find that among all men, amid all the historically developed cultural diversity, there is not only a nuclear family and some extended kinship, work and dancing, art and religion – but also morality. And morality includes common structural patterns, common mechanisms, and, where social institutions are parallel, some detailed similarity in content.” (Edel and Edel 1968:31)
Moral Relativism: values, ethics and moral codes will vary depending on the cultural context in which they are found.
Situational Ethics: “One situation or context is always slightly different from another. Hence, what is right in one situation might be inappropriate in another context.” (Fox 2001: 14)
- Comes very close to the Buddhistic ethical system where intentionality and circumstances are crucial in determining morality of actions, Vinaya- monastic code.
The Need for a Universal Ethic:
Globalization and Interconnectivity: Increasing interactions and complexity of relationships is increasing intercultural encounters.
Ethical Principles are Unavoidable: Ethics are involved in every action we take, no matter how small or seemingly mundane (Shea and Sitter 1989)
Allows for meaningful and proactive discourse on ethical principles and issues including justice, responsibility, compassion, and so on.
Key Point: ethical principles influence behavior, but do not fully determine it.
Visualization of nature-culture relationship: where nature and culture engage in a dialectic cycle. Nature influences culture, and vice versa. Additionally, it represents that culture is sustained by inputs from the natural environment.
We will not dive into the universal climate change ethic I propose, composed of eight ethical principles which are chosen in order to allow for application to a wide array of social problems, be applicable in a range of cultural and geographic contexts, serve to promote the responsible and humane treatment of people and nature, and be applicable by a wide range of actors [individuals, nations, communities, etc.]
Universal Agreement: A universal ethic is not designed to result in total agreement. Some principles are more ‘universal’ than others, and some may require only partial universality.
Example: Differences in social structure are important, but may not require total agreement in order for climate change action to move forward. Patriarchy vs. equality, etc.
Example: Sanctity of life is crucial to a universal climate change ethic at some level, but total agreement on hierarchies and value is not necessary.
Not all Components are Required: Acceptance of most, just a handful, or even only one of the ethical components will allow for cooperation.
Many of the components overlap, meaning not all are required to justify proactive action on ACC issues.
- Acknowledging sanctity of life is enough to warrant many actions, so action can still be ethically supported even is other components [i.e. Universal Responsibility] are not accepted
Some Components are Already Well Accepted: concepts such as justice, sanctity of life, and responsibility for actions are already present to some extent in most cultural and social value systems.
Interdependence: “Ecology and Buddhism are both about the interdependence of all forms of existence, the former from a scientific view, the latter in the existential and experiential sense.” Ken Jones
Compassion: “a feeling of deep sympathy and sorrow for another who is stricken by misfortune, accompanied by a strong desire to alleviate the suffering.”
3. Universal Responsibility: At minimum, (a) considering the ends of the particular endeavor, (b) considering the conditions necessary to undertake the endeavor, and (c) considering the consequences if the endeavor is enacted
4. Skillful Means: Idea that, though universal similarities can be found, situational specificity and unique characteristics cannot be ignored.
5. Respect for Life: Recognizing the value of, and roles filled by all organisms and the habitats they compose
6. Equality and Justice: Emphasizing that all humans are equal in their value, and must be treated with dignity, respect, and humanity.
- Fairness: “the foundational idea that we should avoid bias in our evaluations, take note of the interests and concerns of others and – particularly – try to avoid being influenced by our own vested interests or eccentricities.” – based on concepts of justice by philosopher John Rawls.
7. Human Security: Focusing on the ethical imperative to respond to and prepare for ACC in ways that protects the well-being of people and the stability of social, political, and environmental systems.
Impacts on human health, nation stability, resources [food, water, etc.], all of which can exacerbate or cause conflict & warfare
8: Intelligent Consumption: Engaging in consumption patterns in ways which incorporate the other 7 principles of this ethic.
Acknowledging effects on social and environmental well-being, etc.
1. Consideration of ethical characteristics of ACC must continue, and should grow in emphasis.
2. The role of science and scientists can benefit from deeper exploration, including what role scientists should take (disinterested observer, active participant, etc.)
3. The search for, and relevance of a universal ethic is valid, and has potential for future benefits in ACC and other issues requiring large-scale human input and cooperation.
4. Eastern worldviews and philosophical frameworks, including engaged Buddhism, can provide valuable insights and allow for unique and innovative solutions.
These approaches may be inherently better suited to understanding and solving ACC issues, where connections and relationships become just as important as individual components
While Buddhism, Eastern concepts, and the principles of this ethic certainly do not contain all the answers, evidence suggests that they can be a vital tool in addressing climate change, as well as a host of other social and environmental problems. Specifically they encourage a deep awareness of phenomena, emphasize connections and relationships between phenomena, and generally take a more community-oriented stance relative to many Western ideologies, all of which can provide useful insight into ACC response.
5. The application, effectiveness, and further development of this and other climate change ethics warrants further study and experimentation.
6. Locally generated, supported, and enacted responses likely provide the most effective courses of action:
Encourages local stewardship by knowledgeable and concerned citizens
Provides validity to local action and increase likelihood of consent and support
Allows for the unique values, talents, and challenges of a community to influence action
